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PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE 


V- 


c  H 


■*' 


OF 


TEACHING. 


BY 


JAMES   JOIIONXOT. 


NEW   YOB  K  : 

D.  APPLETON    AM)   COMPANY, 

1,  3,  ami  6   BOND   STREET. 

1883, 


?*<ie 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

James  johonnot, 

1878. 


PKEFACE. 


Experience  is  beginning  to  show  that  teaching,  like 
every  other  department  of  human  thought  and  activity, 
must  change  with  the  changing  conditions  of  society, 
or  it  will  fall  in  the  rear  of  civilization  and  become  an 
obstacle  to  improvement. 

Teachers  imbued  with  modern  thought,  in  compar- 
ing the  ideals  which  such  thought  suggests  with  the 
actual  results  of  their  efforts  in  the  ordinary  routine  of 
instruction,  have  become  dissatisfied ;  and  intelligent 
outside  observers  have  seen  with  great  concern  the  con- 
tinual divergence  of  education  from  practical  affairs. 

Efforts  to  remove  these  difficulties  have  usually  been 
directed  toward  reforming  the  methods  of  presenting 
the  ordinary  topics,  rather  than  toward  a  more  radical 
change ;  and  hence  there  have  grown  up  a  great  num- 
ber of  empiric  methods,  which  have  found  expression 
in  manuals  for  teachers  and  in  text-books.  These  have 
all  contributed  something  to  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, and  in  the  aggregate  have  been  of  great  value  to 
education,  especially  in  the  primary  grades. 

But  the  remedies  have  proved  inadequate,  and  the 


4  rREFACE. 

dissatisfaction  remains,  taking  tlic  form  of  a  widespread 
feeling  that,  in  some  way,  the  schools  are  out  of  joint 
with  the  times,  and  that  the  instruction  which  they 
afford  is  not  the  highest  and  best,  either  as  a  discipli- 
nary force,  or  as  a  preparation  for  the  duties  and  occu- 
pations of  life.  This  feeling  gives  rise  to  a  demand 
that  some  means  shall  be  devised  by  which  education 
may  profit  by  the  results  of  modern  science  and  phi- 
losophy, and  once  more  take  rank  as  a  leading  force  in 
civilization. 

To  meet  this  demand,  the  changes  required  are  or- 
ganic and  fundamental,  and  include  the  matter  which 
shall  be  made  the  basis  of  instruction  and  the  order  of 
presenting  the  several  subjects,  as  well  as  the  methods 
to  be  pursued. 

In  this  volume,  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  exam- 
ine education  from  the  standpoint  of  modern  thought, 
and  to  contribute  something  to  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lems that  are  forcing  themselves  upon  the  attention  of 
educators.  To  these  ends,  a  concise  statement  of  the 
well-settled  principles  of  psychology  has  been  made, 
and  a  connected  view  of  the  interdependence  of  the 
sciences  given,  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  methods  of  in- 
struction, and  to  determine  the  subject-matter  best 
adapted  to  each  stage  of  development. 

The  systems  of  several  of  the  great  educational 
reformers  have  been  analyzed,  with  a  view  to  ascertain 


PREFACE.  5 

precisely  what  each  has  contributed  to  the  science  of 
teaching,  and  how  far  their  ideas  conform  to  psycho- 
logical laws ;  and  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  com- 
bine the  principles  derived  from  both  experience  and 
philosophy  into  one  coherent  system. 

Several  of  the  topics  are  examined  from  different 
points  of  view,  involving  a  degree  of  repetition  ;  but  in 
these  cases  the  topics  treated  either  relate  to  some  er- 
roneous notions  of  education  still  practised  and  defend- 
ed, or  the  treatment  is  needed  to  fully  illustrate  the 
general  topic  under  discussion. 

Fully  aware  of  the  difficulties  of  the  work  which 
he  has  undertaken,  the  author  presents  this  volume  to 
the  public,  in  the  hope  that  any  shortcomings  in  the 
performance  may  be  more  than  compensated  by  the 
thought  which  may  be  elicited  in  a  renewed  examina- 
tion and  discussion  of  the  subject.  Seeking  only  what 
is  true,  he  will  be  first  to  welcome  criticism  that  shall 
point  out  errors  of  fact  or  of  philosophy. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  February  3,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I.  pag« 

General  Objects  of  Education        .  .  .  .  .11 

Knowledge  as  Related  to  Success:  Conditions  of  Successful  Teaching. 
Definition  of  Education:  System,  Symmetry,  Harmony — Objects  of 
Education — The  Means  of  Education — Divisions  of  the  Subject.  Puym- 
cal  Education:  Physical  Development  Twofold — Means  of  Physical 
Development — Work  and  Exercise.  Mental  Education  :  The  Process 
of  Mental  Education — Knowledge  the  Mind's  Food — Discipline  and 
Knowledge — Character  and  Knowledge — Necessary  Knowledge — The 
Means  Employed — Modes  of  Exercise— Practical  Knowledge — Knowl- 
edge of  Rights.  Moral  Education  :  Means  of  Moral  Growth— Meana 
of  Moral  Strength.  General  Summary  :  Scientific  View — Effect  of 
Broader  Views. 

CHAPTER   II. 
The  Mental  Powers  .  .  .  .  .  .25 

Importance  of  Mental  Science  to  Teacufrs  :  A  Common  Defect  of 
Teachers— Scope  of  the  Discussion.  How  Knowledge  is  Obtained  : 
Ideas  of  Pressure-  Ideas  in  Regard  to  the  Surface  of  Objects — Ideas  in 
Regard  to  Flavor — Ideas  in  Regard  to  Odor — Ideas  in  Regard  to  Sound 
— Ideas  in  Regard  to  Light  and  Color— The  Senses  to  be  Cultivated — 
Sensation — Attention — Treatment  of  Attention — Perception— Nature  of 
Percepts — Treatment  of  Perception.  How  Knowledge  is  Retained  : 
Arbitrary  Memory — Suggestive  Memory  —  Associated  Memory— like- 
nesses—  (Jnlikenesses — Dependence — Abuse  of  Memory — The  Bight 
Use  of  Memory — Perception  and  Memory — Recollection.  How 
Knowledge  is  1'sed  :  Imagination — The  Depreciation  of  this  Faculty 
—  A  Highly  Practical  Faculty— Dependence  of  Imagination — Treatment 
of  Imagination  —  Reason  —  Judgment.  Mixed  Mental  Paoi 
Comparison — Conception.  Order  in  Mrntal  Development  :  Princi- 
ples Confirmed  by  Observation — Age  an  Important  Consideration. 
Expression  as  RzLATH)  to  Mental  Development  :  Position  Illus- 
trated—The Twofold  Office  of  Language— Importance  of  Cultivating 
Language. 

CHAPTER    III. 

Objective  Course  of  Instruction     .  .  .  .  .51 

General  View  of  Present  Pr.ArrirEs:  Wrong  Practices— Examples — 
Rote-Learning — Nervous  Action — Beml-Eoflex  Action— Studies  too 
Difficult — Faults  of  Omission.  Rack  and  [■dividual  Gbowth :  His- 
torical Examples.  Objective  or  Inductive  Method:  Perception — 
Comparison  —  Grouping — Objei  live  (  Haaaincation— Generalization  I  iw, 
Principle,  Definition— Examples— Benefits  of  the  Objective  Method- 
Spirit  of  Modern  Science. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Subjective  Course  of  Instruction   .  .  .  .  .67 

The  Subjective  Method  :  Definition  —  Examples—  Divisions  of  a  Subject  — 
Imperfect  Divisions — Subjective  Classification— Illustrations— Opposing 


8  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Theories  —  Scientific  View  —  Definition  of  Divisions  —  Subdivisions. 
Characteristics  of  the  Subjective  Course:  Relation!  to  Develop- 
ment— Relations  to  Knowledge — Place  In  the  Educational  Course— Mis- 
use of  the  Subjective  Method.  Tin:  ( >BJECTTVE  ami  BVBJEi  tive  Courses 
Combined  :  The  Two  Courses  as  Related  to  Discovery  and  Application 
— The  Two  Courses  as  Related  to  the  Teacher's  Work — Errors  of  Re- 
versing the  Two  Courses.  Corollaries  :  Sources  of  Primary  Ideas — 
Training  the  Senses — Securing-  Attention — Cultivating  Perception — 
Exercises  in  Memory— Advanced  Instruction — Ideas  aiid  Words — The 
Steps  of  Instruction — Exercise— Completed  Processes. 

CHAPTER   V. 
Object-Teaching       .  .  .  .  .  .  .S3 

General  View  of  tiie  Subject  :  False  Philosophy — Introduction  of  Ob- 
ject-Lessons— Practical  Mistakes — Reaction  against  Object-Teaching— 
Real  Nature  of  ObjectLessons.  Value  of  Object-Lessons  :  Qualities 
of  Objects— The  Physical  Sciences—"  How  not  to  do  it" — Ideal  Objects 
— Order  in  Thinking — The  Ideal  and  the  Real— Interest  in  Study — Veri- 
fication of  a  Law.  Summary  :  Cautions  to  be  Observed— Limits  of  Ob- 
ject-Teaching—Additional Caution — Conclusion. 

CHAPTER   YP 

Relative  Value  of  the  Different  Branches  of  Instruction         .      95 

The  End  of  Education:  Practical  Questions — Responsibility  for  Change — 
Conditions  of  Chamre.  Real  and  Apparent  Knowledge:  Relations 
of  Language — Relations  of  Mathematics — Direct  and  Incidental  Acquire- 
ment— Kinds  of  Knowledge  Required— Branches  of  Real  Knowledge. 
The  Branches  as  Related  to  Dkvei.opment  :  Natural  Science  as  Pro- 
moting Development — The  Discipline  of  Memory — The  Humanities  as 
Promoting  Development — Discipline  of  the  Reflective  Faculties — Gener- 
al Effect  of  Real  Knowledge — The  Discipline  of  Conduct.  The  Branches 
as  Related  to  Uses:  Uses  of  Natural  Science  — Natural  Science  and 
Industry — Ubiquity  of  the  Elements  of  Natural  Science — Uses  of  the 
Humanities— Conditions  of  their  Successful  Use.  SPECIAL  Studies  : 
Importance  of  History — Chronology — Philology— Archaeology— What  is 
Gained.  Foreign  Languages  :  Elementary  Study — Foreign  Literature 
— Comparative  Philology.  The  Ancient  Languages:  Advantages 
Claimed— Difficulties  Encountered — Mental  Discipline — Schiller's  Opin- 
ion.   Summary  in  Regard  to  Language.    General  Summary. 

CHAPTER   YIP 
Pestalozzi     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .116 

Schools  of  the  Olden  Time  :  Effect  of  Printing  upon  Education— Teach- 
ers Employed — Value  of  Learning  to  Read— Ideal  Schools.  Pf.staloz- 
zi's  Career  :  Philanthropic  Views— The  Ideal  Reduced  to  Practice — 
Experiments  at  Neuhof— Condition  of  the  Country — School  at  Stanz  — 
Condition  of  the  School — Things  and  Representatives — Intellectual  Suc- 
cess—Moral Success — School  at  Burgdorf— School  at  Yverdon.  Pesta- 
lozzi's  Principles  :  Order  in  Mental  Growth— Home  Education— The 
Influence  of  Mothers — Mistakes  in  Application— Education  of  Mothers — 
Study  of  Children — Training  Imbeciles— Basis  of  Experience— Object- 
Teaching— Practical  Objections— Conduct  and  Character— Growth  of 
the  System. 

CHAPTER   YIIP 
Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten        .  .  .  .  .130 

Fruit  of  Pestalozzi's  Principles:  Education  through  Work— A trricultu- 
ral  Schools— Limitations  of  these  Schools,  i  he  Work  of  Fkoebel  : 
Philanthropic  Motives— Development  of  the  Kindergarten— Obscurity 


CONTEXTS.  9 

PAGE 

of  Expression.  Kindergarten  Principles  :  Inherited  Powers  and 
Tendencies— Education  should  Commence  Early— Education  Based  on 
Belt-Activity — spontaneous  Activity,  or  Play — school  Exercises  Bhould 
rive  Pleasure — Physical  and  Mental  Activity  combined— Harmonious 
Development  of  the  Powers — The  Bchools  demanded  by  these  Princi- 
ples. Pkaotk  m.  Kindergarten  Work:  The  Kind  of  1*1  iy  —  Tho 
Method  of  Play— Original  Work— Singing-  Playing  in  the  Dirt— The 
Law  of  Order— Stndy  <>f  the  System.  Tin:  Kinok3Gabtbm  at  St. 
Locis  :  Necessity  of  study  and"  Experiment— Scope  of  Education — 
Scope  of  the  Kindergarten— Delicate  Adjustments — Philosophy  Involved 
— Questions  to  he  Settled. 

CHAPTER   IX. 
Agapsiz  :  ajtd  Sciehce  in  iib  Relations  to  Teaching         .  .    146 

The  SrnrE  and  End  of  SOIKKCE  :  Philosophy  and  Utility— Prof.  Tyndall's 
Opinion — Another  View— Prof.  Huxley's  opinion  -  llar- 

monized— Incentive  to  Investigation.    Mrthods  ok  -  '-ntific 

Method  in  Teaching— Defects  in  Teaching  which  cience  Remedies— 
"Wiikiujj  up  Mind — Growth  of  the  Scientific  Principle.  Ag 
Work  :  Early  Life — Love  of  Nature — Vacation  Studies— Study  of  tho 
Glaciers— Spirit  of  hi>  Work — The  Old  Methods  Distrusted  Reforma- 
tion Begun — The  School  at  Penikese— A  New  Era — Unfinished  Plans. 
Sim\ia':v  of  Agassiz's  Pbinctples  :  Training  the  Observing  Powers- 
Importance  of  Hand-Work — Science  the  Basis  of  Education — Knowl- 
edge Necessary  for  Discipline — Authority  in  Science  and  Education — 
Thoroughness  In  Work  and  Stndy    Scientific  I  rrobo- 

ratlve  views— Uses  of  Hypotheses— Value  oi  Hypotheses — Hypoth- 
eses in  Education. 

CHAPTER   X. 

Systems  of  Education  Compared      .....    16S 

iNTRonrrTORV.  Memorizing  ■  Chinese  Schools— The  Monkish  System — 
English  Schools— Grounds  of  Defense— Securing  Attention— Training 
the  Memory — Judgment  of  Study — Cultivation  of  Language — Future 
Use.    The  Study  or  Books:  Ideas  of  what  Constitutes  an  Educated 

Man — 'I  he  Worship  of  Books— Kvlla  resulting  from  the  Abuse  Of  Hooks 

—The  Place  ol  Text-Books— The  N« ssity  of  Text-Books-  The  Proper 

Use  of  Text- Books —Increased  Demand  tor  Text  Hooks.    The Stepy 
ofTuini.s:  Cultivation  of  Perception— Basis  of  Experience — Materials 
ofThought.    Experiment  ami  work  :  Technical  Schools— Superiority 
of  Educated  Workmen— Work  in  the  Kindergarten— The  Next 
Demanded— Hand  and  Brain  Culture.    Gexxhax  m  khabx. 

CHAPTER    XL 
Physical  Culture    .......    184 

Introm-c -thry  :  Opposing  Theories— Factor-  of  Physical  Culture— Scope 
of  Instruction— Preparation  on  the  Pari  of  Teachers  Food  ■  Kinds  of 
Food— limitations — Quality  of  Food— Quantity  of  Food— Variety  of 
Food— Caution  to  i>c  Observed— Time  tor  Taking  Food— Manner  of 

Taking  F 1-  Miscellaneous  Suggestions  -Use  of  Drii  ks     Pernicious 

Drinks— Tobacco— Habits  of  the  Teacher.  Warmth  :  Clothing— Mate- 
rials for  Clothing— Relations  of  Clothing  to  Food— Changes  of  Tem- 
perature— Sanitary  Suggestions—  Houses  Necessary  <  '>n  adorations. 
Light:  Direction  of  Light— Defective  Sight  Am  mn  Vbkttlatioii  : 
Sources  of  Impure  Air— Conditions  to  be  Observed— Distribution  of 
Heat— Egress  of  Air  -  Ventilating  Arrangement  Method  of  Operation 
—  Practical  Suggestions.  Dirk  r  Mi  a  ulab  Tb liking  :  Calisthenics- 
Kinds  of  Exerda — Callsthenic  Apparatus— Time  given  to  Exercise— 
Caution  to  be  Observed.  Bsvr:  Best  of  Change— Best  of  Attention- 
Complete  Best— Dally  Best  or  Sleep— Amount  ol  Bleep— Besl 
Weariness. 


10  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   XII.  page 

.(Esthetic  Culture  .  .  .  .  .  .  .216 

Nature  of  ^Esthetics  :  Standard  of  Beauty — Ruskin's  Views— Experience 
Theory — Trailing  in  Art.  Form  :  Analysis  of  Form — Geometric  Di- 
visions— Forms  Used  in  Art — Nature  the  Basis  of  Art.  Proportion  : 
Proportion  in  Architecture — Element  of  Safety — General  Ideas  of  Pro- 
portions—  Ideas  of  Proportion  Applied.  Unity  :  Example  in  Nature — 
Unity  in  Art  -Disregard  of  Unity  —  Aggregation  not  Unity.  Symme- 
try :  Symmetry  in  Nature— Symmetry  in  Art.  Harmony  :  Harmony 
in  Style — Harmony  in  Nature — Harmony  in  Art — Want  of  Harmony. 
Variety  :  Variety  in  Nature — Variety  in  Art — Monotony  in  Cities — 
Contrasted  Examples.  Color  :  Standard  of  Beauty  in  Color— Comple- 
mentary Colors — Variety  in  Color — Attention  to  Color.  Sound  :  Origin 
of  Musical  Perception — ^Esthetic  and  Moral  Value  of  Music — Tones  in 
Speech — Unpleasant  Tones.  General  Summary.  ^Esthetic  Teach- 
ing :  'the  School-room — School  Surroundings — Dress — Habits  and  Man- 
ners. Drawing  :  Muscular  Drill — Cultivating  Observation— Perspec- 
tive and  Shading — Use  of  Color — Industrial  Art — Art  Proper — National 
Art. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

Moral  Culture         .  .  .  .  .  .  .251 

Moral  Aims  :  Neglect  of  Moral  Instruction— Reasons  for  the  Neglect. 
What  is  Morality?  Basis  of  Morals.  Extent  of  Needs— Equality  of 
Needs — Basis  of  Eights — Basis  of  Dutv — Negative  and  Positive  Duties 
— Standard  of  Moral  Duty — Concrete  Examples — Factors  of  Morality — 
Individual  Morality.  Moral  Instruction  in  School  :  Force  of  Ex- 
ample— Manners — Example  of  111  Manners — Limit  of  Responsibility — 
Moral  Sensibility — Incidental  Moral  Lessons — Negative  Results — Labor 
and  Service — Caution — Recognition  of  Well-doing.  School  Govern- 
ment :  Obstructive  Considerations — Changes  Desirable— Restraint — 
Indirect  Moral  Influences — Dangers  of  Neglect.  Direct  Moral 
Teaching  :  Precept  and  Practice — Use  of  Common  Incidents— Use  of 
Literature  — Abuse  of  Literature — Use  of  History — Defects  in  Historic 
Study — Moral  Science.  Social  Relations  :  The  Family — General  So- 
ciety—Civil Government— Practical  Morality — Applications  in  Schools — 
Results  of  Moral  Training. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

General  Course  of  Study  .  .  ^  .  .  .    284 

Preliminary  :  Principles  taken  as  a  Basis.  General  Arrangement  : 
The  Natural  Sciences — Course  in  Science— Philosophy  or  the  Humani- 
ties— Course  in  Philosophy — Language — Course  in  Language — Mathe- 
matics—Course in  Mathematics — ^Esthetics— Course  in  ^Esthetirs. 
Primary  Department:  General  Description — rirst  Grade— Second 
Grade  —  Third  Grade.  Intermediate  Department:  General  Descrip- 
tion—Fourth  Grade— Fifth  Grade— Sixth  Grade.  Senior  Depart- 
ment :  General  Description — Seventh  Grade — Eighth  Grade— Ninth 
Grade.  Academic  Department :  General  Description — Tenth  Grade 
—Eleventh  Grade— Twelfth  Grade. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Country  Schools  and  their  Organization  ....    371 

Comparative  Standing:  Advantages  —  Defects  —  Imperfect  Grading — 
Boards  of  Control  —  School-houses  —  Apparatus  and  Books— Short 
Terms — Change  of  Teachers.  Qualification  of  Teachers  :  Scientific 
Knowledge  —  General  Culture  —  The  Mental  Powers — Professional 
Knowledge  -Pelf-Improvement.  Details  of  Work  :  The  Alphabet- 
Reading — Spelling — Object-Lessons — Rural  Affairs.  Special  Course 
of  Study. 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE 


OF 


TEACHING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  OBJECTS  OF  EDUCATION. 

Knowledge  as  Related  to  Success. — "  The  secret 
of  thrift,"  says  the  late  Charles  Kingsley,  <k  is  knowl- 
edge. The  more  you  know,  the  more  you  can  save 
yourself  and  that  which  belongs  to  you,  and  can  do 
more  work  with  less  effort.  A  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  commercial  credit,  we  all  know,  saves  capital,  ena- 
bling a  less  capital  to  do  the  work  of  a  greater.  Knowl- 
edge of  the  electric  telegraph  saves  time  ;  knowledge  of 
writing  saves  human  speech  and  locomotion  ;  knowledge 
of  domestic  economy  saves  income  ;  knowledge  of  sani- 
tary laws  saves  health  and  life ;  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  the  intellect  saves  wear  and  tear  of  brain  ;  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  the  spirit — what  does  it  not  Bave  1  " 
The  application  of  these  remarks  may  be  very  broad, 
reaching  almost  every  department  of  human  life;  but 
to  no  single  pursuit  are  they  more  forcibly  adapted  than 
to  the  profession  and  work  of  the  teacher. 


12  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Conditions  of  Successful  Teaching.  —  Before  a 
teacher  can  set  about  his  professional  work  intelligently 
and  with  assurance  of  success,  he  must  not  only  under- 
stand its  technical  details,  but  he  should  also  have  a 
broad  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  general  ob- 
jects of  education,  and  of  the  means  by  which  these 
objects  are  to  be  accomplished. 

To  many,  the  word  education  has  no  definite  mean- 
ing ;  and  to  others  it  is  made  to  embrace  only  acquaint- 
ance with  certain  stereotyped  branches  commonly  taught 
in  our  schools.  The  true  teacher  must,  in  the  outset, 
get  a  clear  idea  of  the  meaning  of  his  work.  He  must 
also  possess  such  a  knowledge  of  its  nature  and  princi- 
ples as  will  effectually  save  him  from  the  control  of  a 
low  and  contracted  view  of  his  vocation  ;  and  from  the 
partial  or  complete  failure  to  which  such  a  view  must 
inevitably  lead. 

Definition  of  Education. — The  term  education  is 
derived  immediately  from  the  Latin  word  educare  {to 
oring  uj),  or  to  instruct),  from  the  root  educere  (to  lead 
forth,  or  to  draw  out).  This  literal  rendering  but  im- 
perfectly represents  the  meaning  that  now  attaches  to 
the  word.  It  not  only  means  to  draw  out,  but  it  in- 
cludes the  appliances  and  agencies  necessary  for  the 
development  of  a  human  being. 

The  mind,  instead  of  being  a  repository  of  powers 
which  only  need  to  be  drawn  out,  is  more  like  a  plant 
which  grows  from  a  seed  to  its  full  stature.  The  im- 
portance of  this  distinction  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 
The  way  in  which  the  growth  of  a  plant  results  from 
brinsnno:  the  germ  of  the  seed  into  contact  with  the 
appropriate  substance  in  which  it  is  planted,  is  iUufitra- 


GENERAL   OBJECTS   OF   EDUCATION.  13 

live  of  the  process  by  which  the  inherent  powers  of  the 
mind  are  brought  into  contact  with  material  outside  of 
the  mind — thus  producing  growth :  but  growth,  as  we 
shall  see,  under  the  laws  and  limitations  of  the  mental 
organism  itself. 

System,  Symmetry,  Harmony.  —  This  illustration 
may  be  still  further  applied.  The  growth  of  a  plant 
proceeds  systematically,  symmetrically,  and  harmoni- 
ously. Stem,  bud,  leaf,  flower,  and  fruit,  come  precise- 
ly in  the  succession  necessary  to  accomplish  the  highest 
object  of  the  plant.  Supplied  with  appropriate  food 
and  culture,  the  progress  of  the  plant  will  be  distin- 
guished by  symmetry  and  harmony  in  the  development 
of  its  different  organs.  An  excessive  forcing  of  stem  or 
leaf  will  unavoidably  result  in  a  limitation  of  flower  and 
fruit.  These  organs,  therefore,  develop  in  due  propor- 
tion, and  without  interference  with  each  other,  and,  as  a 
natural  consequence,  avoid  loss  or  waste  of  force.  The 
proper  development  of  the  mental  power  or  faculties 
must  follow  a  similar  law  or  method. 

Object  of  Education. — The  object  of  education, 
then,  is  to  promote  the  normal  growth  of  a  human  being, 
developing  all  his  powers  systematically  and  symmetri- 
cally, so  as  to  give  the  greatest  possible  capability  in 
thought  and  action.  These  powers  must  be  trained  to 
act  harmoniously,  so  that  there  need  be  no  wasti 
effort  in  any  direction. 

The  Means  of  Education  are  such  agencies  as  will 
promote  the  objects  set  forth.  These  means  are  proper 
where  thev  contribute  to  the  desired  result  ;  they  are 
adequate  when  they  accomplish  the  result. 

All  educational  means  should  be  measured  by  this 


14  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

standard  of  excellence,  and  they  should  be  adopted  or 
rejected  accordingly  as  they  bear  this  test. 

Division  of  the  Subject. — Education,  in  the  broad 
sense,  naturally  divides  itself  into  physical,  intellectual, 
and  moral.  The  first  relates  to  the  development  of  the 
body ;  the  second,  to  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
faculties ;  and  the  third,  to  the  regulation  of  conduct. 

Physical  Education  has  for  its  objects  the  growth 
and  nurture  of  the  body,  and  the  attainment  of  bodily 
strength.  Upon  the  accomplishment  of  these  objects 
the  entire  welfare  of  the  human  being  depends.  With- 
out proper  bodily  growth  and  nurture,  it  is  impossible 
to  achieve  either  mental  or  moral  excellence. 

Physical  Development  Twofold. — Bodily  develop- 
ment is  twofold,  consisting  of  physical  growth  and  phys- 
ical strength.  In  thought  these  two  can  be  separated, 
but  in  practice  they  are  always  associated.  While 
growth  and  strength  go  on  together,  each  increment 
or  step  of  growth  must  precede  an  increment  or  step 
of  strength. 

Means  of  Physical  Development. — The  means  for 
the  promotion  of  physical  growth  are  principally  the 
articles  used  for  food,  and  subordinately  those  other 
material  agencies  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  hu- 
man life.  The  food  consumed,  to  produce  the  result, 
must  be  of  a  proper  kind,  and  must  be  taken  in  proper 
quantities  and  at  the  proper  times.  Besides  these  ex- 
ternal conditions,  internally  food  must  be  properly  di- 
gested and  assimilated,  or  converted  into  bodily  tissue. 
These  conditions  fulfilled,  the  body  grows,  and  is  nur- 
tured after  growth  is  attained — food  being  an  indispen- 


GENERAL  OBJECTS  OF  EDUCATION.  15. 

sable  agent,  and  the  principal  one  in  promoting  the 
growth. 

Work  and  Exercise. — The  means  used  to  promote 
bodily  strength — the  second  object  of  physical  educa- 
tion— are  work  and  exercise.  AVhile  food  in  some  meas- 
ure produces  strength,  its  chief  object  is  to  promote 
growth.  And  while  exercise  in  some  degree  produces 
growth,  its  chief  object  is  to  promote  strength.  Both 
food  and  exercise  are  indispensable  to  physical  develop- 
ment and  physical  well-being. 

Importance  of  the  Subject. — This  matter  of  physical 
education  is  one  that  should  secure  careful  consideration 
from  every  teacher.  Upon  it  depends  not  only  physical 
well-being,  but  from  its  consideration  are  derived  gen- 
eral principles  of  great  value  when  applied  to  intel- 
lectual and  moral  education. 

Mental  Education. — In  intellectual  as  in  physical 
education,  the  two  objects  to  be  attained  are  intellectual 
growth  and  intellectual  strength  :  the  growth  of  all  the 
faculties  of  the  mind  to  their  full  maturity,  and  the  pos- 
-<  -ion  of  all  the  strength  possible  in  each  individual. 

The  Process  of  Ment>/I  Education. — Though  the 
nature  of  the  mind's  action  is  peculiar,  the  process  of 
its  development  is  analogous  to  the  process  of  physical 
development.  Food  properly  appropriated  fa  the  means 
by  which  the  growth  of  the  body  is  secured.  In  like 
manner  the  mind  grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon,  and  the 
natural  aliment  that  produces  mental  growth  is  knowl- 
edge. 

Knowledge  the  Mind's  Food. — The  term  knowledge 
is  here  used  in  its  comprehensive  sense,  as  embracing  not 


16  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

only  the  subjective  cognition,  or  act  of  knowing,  but  the 
tilings,  facts,  truths,  or  material  about  which  this  act  is 
employed  in  bringing  the  individual  into  the  practical 
relations  of  life.  As  food  is  indispensable  to  physical 
growth,  so  without  knowledge  the  mind  cannot  grow. 
While  the  mind,  from  the  first,  possesses  all  the  germs 
of  mental  power,  it  is  the  appropriation  of  knowledge 
alone  that  converts  its  latent  and  apparently  passive 
capacities  into  active  capabilities. 

Discipline  and  Knowledge. — In  accordance  with  a 
theory  of  education  now  passing  into  disuse,  it  has  been 
customary  to  require  the  mind  to  pass  through  an  ex- 
perience intended  simply  to  furnish  discipline,  by  con- 
fining the  pupil  to  certain  branches,  the  substance  of 
which  rarely,  if  ever,  enters  into  practical  use.  It  has 
been  contended  that  a  pure  discipline  of  the  faculties 
should  be  secured  by  this  process  before  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  is  permitted.  The  teacher  will  observe 
that  this  theory,  and  the  practice  based  upon  it,  are 
almost  wholly  discarded  in  the  present  work.  It  is  here 
held  that  the  theory  of  "  discipline  before  knowledge  " 
involves  not  only  a  wrong  principle,  but,  in  practice,  leads 
to  a  great  waste  of  the  mental  force  and  time  of  the 
pupil. 

The  Character  of  Knowledge  Important. — To  pro- 
duce the  proper  result,  knowledge,  like  food,  must  be 
of  the  proper  character,  and  must  be  appropriated  in 
proper  quantities  and  at  suitable  times.  This  knowledge 
or  mental  food  must  be  digested  by  the  mental  organ- 
ism, and  assimilated  or  converted  into  mental  tissue. 
The  great  problems  of  education  have  been,  to  select 
the  knowledge  best  adapted  to  nurture  the  mind  at  its 


GENERAL   OBJECTS  OF  EDUCATION.  17 

various  stages  of  growth,  and  so  to  prepare  this  nutri- 
ment that  the  mental  organism  can  assimilate  it  with 
the  least  waste  of  power. 

This  View  Confirmed. — In  his  work  on  moral  science, 
President  Hopkins,  of  Williams,  says :  "  Knowledge  is 
the  food  of  the  mind.  And  as  food  may  overload  and 
enfeeble  the  body,  and  is  to  be  received  only  as  there  is 
a  capacity  of  digestion  and  assimilation,  and  ultimate 
reference  to  action,  so  knowledge  may  overload  and  en- 
feeble the  mind,  and  should  be  received  only  as  it  can 
be  reflected  on  and  arranged,  and  so  incorporated  into 
our  mental  being  as  to  give  us  power  for  action." 

Necessary  Knowledge. — While  knowledge  in  gen- 
eral contributes  to  mental  growth,  and  while  there  may 
be  room  for  choice  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  knowledge 
best  adapted  to  individual  development,  one  specific 
kind  is  indispensable,  and  that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  of  physical  well-being.  Obedience  to  physi- 
cal laws  is  also  a  necessity  to  mental  and  moral  well- 
being.  This  knowledge,  so  momentous  to  life  and  every- 
thing which  makes  life  worth  preserving,  includes  the 
careful  and  systematic  observation  of  all  the  facts  bear- 
ing upon  the  subject ;  the  inferences  and  laws  to  be  de- 
rived from  these  facts ;  and  the  application  of  laws, 
through  wisely-directed  means,  to  the  maintenance  of 
health. 

The  Means  Employed. — Intellectual  strength  or  p<  Av- 
er— the  second  object  of  intellectual  education — is  best 
promoted  by  exercise.  While  knowledge  in  some  meas- 
ure produces  strength,  its  chief  object  is  to  promote  the 
growth  and  nurture  of  the  mind;  and  while  exercise 
to  some  extent  produces  growth,  its  chief  object  is  to 


18  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

give  intellectual  strength.  The  two — knowledge  and 
exercise — are  both  indispensable  to  mental  development 
and  well-being. 

Caution. — It  should  not  for  a  moment  be  supposed 
that  any  scheme  for  the  promotion  of  a  true  education 
can  be  devised  that  does  not  involve  intellectual  work. 
The  improvement  of  methods  of  instruction,  the  per- 
fecting of  illustrative  apparatus,  and  all  the  valuable 
helps  of  the  best  schools,  conspire  only  to  avoid  mis- 
direction and  waste,  and  to  increase  intellectual  effort ; 
but  nothing  can  supersede  the  necessity  of  work  as  the 
source  of  strength. 

The  Modes  of  Exercise,  conducive  to  strength  and 
best  adapted  to  school-work,  are  the  arrangement  of 
knowledge  in  logical  order,  so  as  to  lead  to  the  percep- 
tion of  laws  and  principles;  the  expression  of  knowl- 
edge, both  in  speaking  and  writing,  in  the  form  of  well- 
considered  discourse ;  and  the  use  of  knowledge  in  di- 
rectly serving  the  great  purposes  of  life. 

These  modes  of  exercise  take  their  practical  form  in 
the  arrangement  of  all  the  facts  gained  from  the  study 
of  each  branch  of  instruction  in  some  kind  of  definite 
order.  The  incidents  of  a  journey  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  sequence ;  the  events  of  history  in  the  order 
of  time ;  and  the  facts  of  physical  phenomena  in  the 
order  of  causation.  The  successive  topics  treated  in 
arithmetic,  geography,  and  the  like,  are  arranged  in  ac- 
cordance with  relations  peculiar  to  each  branch  respec- 
tively— the  arrangement  resulting  in  classification.  The 
knowledge  so  arranged  then  finds  expression  in  such 
language  as  can  be  best  understood. 

The  effort  of  the  mind  to  arrange  knowledge,  and 


GENERAL   OBJECTS   OF   EDUCATION.  19 

the  subsequent  effort  to  express  it  clearly,  are  among 
the  best  possible  school-exercises  for  the  promotion  of 
intellectual  strength.  The  result  of  these  efforts,  when 
rightly  directed,  is  to  put  knowledge  in  the  best  form 
for  that  practical  use  which  still  further  increases  the 
intellectual  life. 

Practical  Knowledge  takes  Precedence. — It  will  be 
shown  hereafter  that  the  knowledge  which  is  of  most 
importance  in  serving  our  daily  needs  is  that  best  adapt- 
ed  to  secure  intellectual  growth  ;  and  that  the  arrange- 
ment, expression,  and  use  of  this  knowledge,  in  the 
manner  in  which  it  must  be  employed  in  the  industries 
and  professions  to  which  men  devote  themselves,  is  the 
most  direct  and  efficacious  way  of  securing  intellectual 
strength. 

Knowledge  and  Practice  of  Rights. — One  other  spe- 
cific kind  of  knowledge  seems  to  be  indispensable  to 
full  intellectual  development.  In  consequence  of  our 
needs,  we  have  certain  rights  which  are  inherent  and 
inalienable.  Every  human  being,  before  he  can  arrive 
at  a  full  mental  stature,  must  not  only  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  rights,  but  he  must  be  placed  in  full  pos- 
session of  them.  If  his  rights  are  surrendered  on  the 
one  hand,  or  infringed  on  the  other,  his  capabilities 
are  lessened,  and  he  is  intellectually  both  smaller  and 
weaker  than  he  otherwise  would  have  been.  This  con- 
sideration shows  the  connection  between  intellectual 
and  moral  education. 

Moral  Education  considers  the  relations  which  ex- 
ist between  the  individual  and  other  human  beings,  and 
the  conduct  proper  to  observe  in  consequence  of  those 


20  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

relations.  Analogous  to  the  divisions  of  physical  and 
mental  education,  moral  education  consists  first  of  moral 
growth,  and  secondly  of  moral  strength.  As  moral  ac- 
tion is  complex,  and  intimately  associated  with  the  three- 
fold manifestation  of  mental  action — the  intellect,  the 
feelings,  and  the  will — the  agencies  that  promote  moral 
growth  and  strength  are  more  complex  than  those  neces- 
sary to  physical  or  mental  growth. 

Means  of  Moral  Growth. — These  are,  firsts  the  un- 
conscious affection  which  reciprocates  the  love  of  par- 
ents ;  secondly,  the  sympathy  which,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  springs  from  personal  experience ;  thirdly, 
the  example  and  precepts  of  parents  and  instructors ; 
and,  fourthly,  the  investigation  of  human  relations,  and 
the  development  of  the  laws  which  govern  such  rela- 
tions. 

The  Means  of  Moral  Strength  consist  mainly  in  the 
application  of  the  moral  laws  which  have  been  devel- 
oped to  all  cases  of  conduct  where  others  are  concerned. 
The  power  of  self-control,  of  subordinating  selfish  pro- 
pensities, and  of  the  systematic  performance  of  duty, 
come  from  practice  alone  ;  and  this  power  needs  to  re- 
ceive distinct  encouragement  through  the  whole  period 
of  school-life,  so  that,  finally,  moral  strength  may  be 
gained. 

The  principles  of  moral  development,  and  the  gen- 
eral plan  for  the  introduction  of  moral  exercises  into 
our  schools,  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Moral  Educa- 
tion." 

Genekal  Summary. — This  general  survey  of  the 
educational  field  gives  us  an  enlarged  view  of  the  na- 


GENERAL   OBJECTS   OF   EDUCATION.  21 

ture  and  scope  of  education,  and  it  enables  us  to  express 
these  enlarged  ideas  in  the  form  of  a  definition.  Edu- 
cation has  for  its  objects  the  development  and  training 
of  all  the  powers  and  faculties  of  a  human  being  com- 
pletely and  harmoniously ;  the  furnishing  of  the  mind 
with  knowledge  of  the  most  worth  in  the  performance 
of  duties ;  the  subjection  of  all  the  powers  to  the  con- 
trol of  intelligent  and  beneficent  motive  ;  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  habit  of  yielding  instant  obedience  to  physi- 
cal and  spiritual  laws. 

Scientific  View. — In  a  paper  upon  "  A  Liberal  Edu- 
cation," Prof.  Huxley  summarizes  his  ideas  of  the  char- 
acter of  an  education  which  is  demanded  by  the  science 
and  culture  of  the  times.  lie  says :  "  The  question  of 
compulsory  education  is  settled  so  far  as  Nature  is  con- 
cerned. Her  bill  on  that  question  was  framed  and 
passed  long  ago.  But  like  all  compulsory  legislation, 
that  of  Nature  is  harsh  and  wasteful  in  its  operation. 
Ignorance  is  visited  as  sharply  as  willful  disobedience  ; 
incapacity  meets  the  same  punishment  as  crime.  Na- 
ture's discipline  is  not  even  a  word  and  a  blow,  and  the 
blow  first ;  but  the  blow  without  the  word.  It  is  left  to 
you  to  find  out  why  your  ears  are  boxed. 

"The  object  of  what  we  commonly  call  education 
— that  education  in  which  man  intervenes,  and  which  I 
shall  distinguish  as  artificial  education — is  to  make  good 
these  defects  in  Nature's  methods;  to  prepare  the  child 
to  receive  Nature's  education  neither  incapably,  nor 
ignorantly,  nor  with  willful  disobedience  ;  and  to  under- 
stand the  preliminary  symptoms  of  her  displeasure  with- 
out waiting  for  the  box  on  the  ear.  In  short,  all  artifi- 
cial education  ought  to  be  an  anticipation  of  natural 


I 


22  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

education.  And  a  liberal  education  is  an  artificial  edu- 
cation, which  has  not  only  prepared  a  man  to  escape  the 
great  evils  of  disobedience  to  natural  laws,  but  has 
trained  him  to  appreciate  and  to  seize  upon  the  rewards, 
which  Nature  scatters  with  as  free  a  hand  as  her  penalties. 

"  That  man,  I  think,  has  had  a  liberal  education 
who  has  been  so  trained  in  youth  that  his  body  is  the 
ready  servant  of  his  will,  and  does  with  ease  and  pleas- 
ure all  the  work  that,  as  a  mechanism,  it  is  capable  of  ; 
whose  intellect  is  a  clear,  cold  logic-engine,  with  all  its 
parts  of  equal  strength,  and  in  smooth  working  order ; 
ready,  like  a  steam-engine,  to  be  turned  to  any  kind  of 
work,  and  spin  the  gossamers  as  well  as  forge  the  an- 
chors of  the  mind  ;  whose  mind  is  stored  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  great  and  fundamental  truths  of  Nature, 
and  of  the  laws  of  her  operations ;  one  who,  no  stunted 
ascetic,  is  full  of  life  and  fire,  but  whose  passions  are 
trained  to  come  to  heel  by  a  vigorous  will,  the  servant 
of  a  tender  conscience ;  who  has  learned  to  love  all 
beauty,  whether  of  Nature  or  art,  to  hate  all  vileness, 
and  to  respect  others  as  himself. 

"  Such  an  one  and  no  other,  I  conceive,  has  had  a  lib- 
eral education  ;  for  he  is,  as  completely  as  a  man  can 
be,  in  harmony  with  Nature.  He  will  make  the  best 
of  her,  and  she  of  him.  They  will  get  on  together 
rarely,  she  as  his  ever-beneficent  mother,  he  as  her  mouth- 
piece, her  conscious  self,  her  minister  and  interpreter." 

This  view  of  education  shows  that  the  instruction 
prevalent  in  our  schools  usually  falls  far  below  educa- 
tional demands.  It  shows  also  that  teachers  frequently 
t.ike  narrow  and  limited  views  of  their  work,  and  so 
fail  in  accomplishing  the  highest  attainable  good. 


GENERAL   OBJECTS   OF   EDUCATION".  23 

Effects  of  Broader  Views. — With  these  enlarged 
views  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  their  work,  teachers 
will  pay  particular  attention  to  everything  that  pertains 
to  the  physical  comfort  of  their  pupils;  and  they  will 
carefully  investigate  the  laws  of  physical  existence  for 
guidance  in  the  proper  care  and  training  of  the  body. 
They  will  make  their  pupils  intelligent  in  regard  to  the 
food  they  eat,  the  dress  they  wear,  and  every  condition 
which  affects  their  physical  welfare. 

In  mental  work  they  will  arrange  a  course  of  study 
in  exact  accordance  with  the  needs  of  each  stage  of 
mental  development;  and  they  will  present  the  knowl- 
edge embraced  in  such  a  course  in  the  way  which  Bci- 
ence  points  out.  They  will  not  be  contented  with  em- 
piric processes  and  meagre  results.  They  will  be  guided 
by  rational  and  intelligent  principles  rather  than  by 
mere  precedent  or  authority,  and  in  all  their  work  they 
will  conform  to  the  laws  of  mental  development,  ob- 
tained from  a  study  of  mind  itself.  They  will  aim  to 
give  their  pupils  greater  power  to  do  work  in  every 
vocation  to  which  they  may  afterward  be  called. 

In  morals,  teachers  will  aim  to  have  their  pupils 
measure  and  regulate  their  own  conduct  toward  others 
by  the  standard  of  human  welfare  so  clearly  expressed 
in  the  golden  rule,  and  to  make  them  intelligent  in 
regard  to  all  human  relations.  They  will  so  order  their 
work  and  their  own  conduct  as  to  stimulate  the  pupil  to 
devote  his  life  to  beneficent  use,  and  to  the  attainment 
of  that  crowning  excellence  of  all  education — nobility 
of  character. 

The  following  chapters  of  this  work  are  devoted  to 
a  development  of  the  principles  which  underlie    this 


24  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

broad  education,  and  to  a  consideration  of  the  means  by 
which  it  may  be  attained. 

As  the  work  of  education  has  mainly  to  do  with  the 
mind,  we  first  give  a  brief  resume  of  the  principles  of 
mental  philosophy  which  pertain  to  this  subject,  avoid- 
ing metaphysical  discussions  on  the  one  hand,  and  an 
obscure  technical  phraseology  on  the  other.  These  prin- 
ciples furnish  a  key  both  to  the  means  to  be  used  in 
educational  work,  and  the  methods  to  be  followed  in 
the  use  of  the  means.  In  the  subsequent  chapters,  the 
principles  developed  receive  additional  illustration,  and 
are  applied  to  the  details  of  teaching.  The  systems  of 
several  of  the  great  educational  reformers  are  also  care- 
fully examined,  and  their  principles  are  compared  with 
those  derived  from  the  study  of  mind,  as  the  basis  of 
an  intelligent  appreciation  of  their  merits  and  criticisms 
of  their  faults. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  MENTAL    POWERS. 

Importance  of  Mental  Science  to  Teaching. — All 
intelligent  teaching  must  be  based  upon  principles  de- 
rived from  a  consideration  of  the  powers  or  faculties  of 
the  mind;  their  modes  of  action;  the  order  of  their 
development ;  and  the  means  by  which  their  activity  is 
awakened.  Moral,  and  even  physical  education,  de- 
pends largely  upon  laws  which  can  be  known  only 
through  an  acquaintance  with  the  operations  of  the 
mind.  Indeed,  so  completely  does  this  science  constitute 
the  ultimate  basis  upon  which  all  trustworthy  investiga- 
tion where  human  action  is  concerned  must  rest,  that  it 
has  been  called  the  "  Queen  of  the  Sciences." 

A  Common  Defect  of  Teachers. — Notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  philosophy  of  the  mind  is  the  basis  of 
all  other  sciences  which  involve  human  action,  the  com- 
mon fault  of  teachers  is  an  almost  entire  ignorance  of 
the  application  of  mental  facts  to  the  work  of  teaching. 
In  the  class-room  and  in  the  institute,  the  constant  effort 
is  to  ascertain  what  specific  and  mechanical  methods 
have  proved  successful  by  experiment,  rather  than  to 
settle  by  fixed  laws  what  methods  must  be  successful. 

The  real  object  of  instruction  is  too  often  lost  sight 
2 


20  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

of.  The  question  of  primary  interest  seems  to  be  "  How 
to  teach  the  different  branches,"  instead  of  "How  to 
develop  and  train  the  faculties  of  the  child  by  the  use 
of  these  branches."  The  natural  consequence  of  this 
superficial  view  is,  that  teaching  is  too  often  a  mere  imi- 
tative art,  of  doubtful  and  varying  success.  Without  a 
careful  and  reflective  acquaintance  with  the  constitution 
of  the  child's  mind,  the  work  of  the  teacher,  with  his 
geographies,  arithmetics,  and  grammars,  is  scarcely  less 
absurd  than  the  performance  of  a  difficult  operation  in 
surgery  by  one  who  knows  all  about  ligatures,  knives, 
and  saws,  but  understands  nothing  of  human  anatomy. 

Scope  of  the  Present  Discussion. — It  is  not  proposed 
here  to  give  a  treatise  upon  intellectual  philosophy,  but 
only  such  a  consideration  of  mental  phenomena  as  is 
indispensable  to  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the 
teacher's  work.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  knowl- 
edge in  some  form  is  the  element  upon  which  the  mind 
feeds,  and  is  necessary  in  all  of  the  processes  of  educa- 
tion. We  now  propose  to  show  the  sjtecific  relations  of 
knowledge  to  mind,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent intellectual  powers  are  aroused  into  activity.  In 
the  treatment  of  this  subject  the  language  of  appearance 
or  of  ordinary  life  will  be  employed,  instead  of  the  strict 
phraseology  of  the  sciences. 

How  Knowledge  is  Obtained. — The  mind  in  some 
way  becomes  possessed  of  knowledge  from  the  outward 
world,  or  from  objects.  To  arrive  at  the  possession  of 
this  knowledge,  three  conditions  are  necessary :  The  ob- 
ject respecting  which  the  knowledge  is  gained ;  the 
mind  to  receive  this  knowledge  ;  and  some  organism  to 


THE   MENTAL   POWERS.  27 

serve  as  a  means  of  communication  between  the  mind 
and  the  object.  In  point  of  fact,  we  find  that  the  dif- 
ferent ideas  derived  from  objects  come  through  different 
organs  specially  adapted  to  their  respective  purposes. 

Ideas  of  Pressure,  and  of  the  weight  of  objects,  are 
conveyed  to  the  mind  by  the  nerves  distributed  through 
the  muscles.  While  nearly  all  of  the  muscles  of  the 
body  are  more  or  less  sensitive  to  pressure,  ideas  of  com- 
parative weight  are  obtained  mainly  through  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arm.  The  ability  of  the  mind  to  receive  the 
ideas  of  pressure  and  weight  is  called  the  mascnlur 
sense  /  and  the  nerves  and  muscles  through  which  these 
impressions  are  made  are  the  organs  of  the  muscular 
sense. 

Ideas  in  Regard  to  the  Surface  of  Objects,  such  as 
rough  and  smooth,  hard  and  soft,  are  brought  to  the 
mind  by  the  nerves  distributed  through  the  skin.  These 
nerves  are  most  sensitive  in  the  ends  of  the  fingers. 
The  same  nerves  within  narrow  limits  convey  ideas  of 
comparative  temperature.  Excessive  heat  and  exces- 
sive cold  will  destroy  the  nerves  so  that  the  impressions 
made  are  nearly  identical.  With  the  hand  in  motion, 
these  nerves  give  rise  to  ideas  of  extension  and  change 
of  direction,  from  which  are  derived  ideas  of  size  and 
form.  The  capability  of  the  mind  to  receive  these  im- 
pressions of  surface  is  called  touch — the  fingers  being 
the  principal  organs  of  touch. 

Ideas  in  Regard  to  the  Flavor  of  Objects,  such  as 
BWeet,  salt,  and  bitter,  are  awakened  in  the  mind  by  the 
nerves  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  and 
the  contiguous  parts  of  the  mouth.  The  surface  of 
bodies  only  can  occasion   ideas  of  flavor,  and   this  BUT* 


28  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

face,  at  the  moment  of  imparting  the  impression  to  the 
nerves,  must  be  dissolved,  or  in  a  liquid  state.  The  ca- 
pacity of  the  mind  to  receive  ideas  of  flavor  is  called 
taste,  and  the  tongue  and  palate  are  the  organs  of  taste. 

Ideas  in  Regard  to  the  Odor  of  Ohjects,  such  as 
musk,  rose,  or  pink,  are  brought  to  the  mind  by  the 
nerves  distributed  through  the  cavities  of  the  nose. 
The  impressions  which  give  rise  to  these  ideas  of  odor 
are  made  by  an  ethereal  emanation  from  an  object  rather 
than  by  the  object  itself.  The  capacity  of  the  mind  to 
entertain  ideas  of  odor  is  called  smell,  the  nose  being 
the  organ  of  smell. 

Ideas  in  Regard  to  Sound,  such  as  thunder,  musical 
notes,  and  speech,  are  occasioned  in  the  mind  by  the 
nerves  that  ramify  through  the  organism  of  the  internal 
ear.  Sound  is  neither  an  object  nor  an  emanation  from 
an  object,  but  is  caused  by  a  vibration  of  the  air  striking 
the  tympanum  of  the  ear,  and  this  vibration  is  caused 
by  the  motion  or  vibration  of  an  object.  Differences 
in  the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  give  rise  to  differences 
in  the  pitch  of  sounds.  The  power  of  the  mind  to  re- 
ceive ideas  of  sound  is  called  hearing.  The  ear  is  the 
organ  of  hearing. 

Ideas  in  Regard  to  light  and  Color,  such  as  red, 
yellow,  and  blue,  are  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  the  mech- 
anism of  the  eye,  and  by  the  nerves  passing  through 
the  interior  of  the  eye.  Light  is  now  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  the  vibrations  of  an  exceedingly  attenuated 
ether  which  fills  the  whole  interstellar  spaces,  striking 
against  the  structure  of  the  eye. 

These  vibrations  are,  in  turn,  set  in  motion  by  the 
vibrations  of  a  luminous  object.     The  difference  in  the 


THE   MENTAL   POWERS.  29 

rapidity  of  these  vibrations  gives  rise  to  the  ideas  of  the 
different  colors.  By  differences  in  intensity  of  light ;  by 
the  distribution  of  color  ;  by  the  impressions  of  exten- 
sion gained  from  touch,  and  by  the  experience  gained 
from  motion,  we  get  corrected  ideas  of  distance,  size,  and 
form.  The  capacity  of  the  mind  to  receive  ideas  of 
light  is  called  seeing,  or  sight.  The  eye  is  the  organ  of 
sight. 

The  /Senses. — These  six  methods  by  which  the  mind 
gets  possession  of  knowledge  respecting  the  outward 
world  are  called  the  senses.  It  will  be  seen  that  each 
sense  has  its  separate  function,  and  that  one  sense  cannot 
perform  the  office  of  another  sense. 

It  has  been  a  question  much  discussed,  whether  the 
organs  of  one  sense  can  be  made  to  perform  the  func- 
tions of  another.  For  example,  can  the  blind  be  made 
to  apprehend  light  and  color?  and  can  the  deaf  ever 
understand  the  nature  of  sound  ?  It  is  a  well-known 
fact,  that  the  touch  of  a  blind  man  can  be  made  so  sen- 
sitive that  he  can  readily  distinguish  the  differences  of 
color  in  different  kinds  of  cloth.  This  sensitiveness, 
however,  appears  to  enable  him  to  distinguish  differ- 
ences in  the  surface  of  the  fabric  which  could  not  be 
detected  by  ordinary  touch,  while  it  does  not  convey  to 
him  any  definite  idea  of  color  in  the  sense  in  which  it 
is  presented  to  the  eye.  So  of  sound.  The  deaf  man 
may  be  sensitive  to  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  but  he  can 
have  no  adequate  idea  of  the  nature  of  sound  as  it  comes 
to  the  ear. 

By  the  loss  of  one  sense  the  other  senses  become 
more  acute,  but  probably  the  exact  functions  of  one  are 
never  performed  by  another. 


30  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

The  Senses  to  he  Cultivated. — As  the  senses  are  the 
only  means  by  which  primary  knowledge  of  objects  can 
be  obtained,  the  well-being  of  every  individual  demands 
that  the  different  organs  of  sense  should  be  so  cared  for 
as  to  be  in  a  healthy  and  sensitive  condition ;  and  the 
senses  themselves  should  be  trained  to  do  their  work 
with  precision  and  skill. 

For  example :  the  notes  in  music,  the  modulations 
of  the  human  voice  in  regard  to  pitch,  quantity,  and 
quality,  the  modifications  of  tone  which  constitute 
speech,  and  the  peculiarities  of  speech  which  express 
the  different  emotions  and  passions,  must  all  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  ear ;  and  that  these  differences  in  sound 
may  be  fully  understood,  the  ear  must  receive  special 
training.  It  is  impossible  to  present  these  ideas  to  the 
mind  through  the  eye,  or  through  any  of  the  other  or- 
gans of  sense. 

Ideas  in  regard  to  color  and  form  must  be  addressed 
to  the  eye.  A  verbal  description  of  an  object  which 
has  not  been  seen  will  give  a  very  vague  idea  of  the  re- 
ality unless  the  eye  has  been  trained  to  accurate  obser- 
vation, and  has  seen  something  similar  to  the  thing  de- 
scribed. 

In  the  study  of  geography,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
descriptive  part  is  worse  than  useless  from  the  neglect 
of  the  early  training  of  the  eye.  The  words  of  the  de- 
scription, failing  to  take  hold  of  the  experience  of  the 
pupil,  find  no  response  in  the  understanding,  and  the 
exercise  becomes  one  of  words  only.  To  train  the  eye 
to  an  appreciation  of  natural  scenery,  architecture,  and 
the  like,  when  accessible  real  objects  are  exhausted, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  pictures  which  address  them- 


THE   MENTAL  TOWERS.  31 

selves  to  the  eye,  and  by  means  of  which  knowledge 
may  be  indefinitely  extended. 

Mistakes  to  he  Avoided. — In  school,  the  mistake  is 
often  made  of  endeavoring  to  convey  to  the  mind  ideas 
belonging  to  one  sense  through  another.  Ideas  of  form 
come  through  the  sight  and  touch  alone,  and  yet  many 
times  an  effort  is  made  to  have  pupils  comprehend  form 
by  mere  verbal  description  addressed  to  the  ear.  By 
an  adult,  with  a  well-trained  mind,  stocked  with  images 
derived  from  experience,  such  descriptions  may  be  un- 
derstood, because  lie  is  able  to  translate  the  language  of 
one  sense  into  that  of  another  ;  but  to  a  child,  who  has 
had  little  experience,  the  description  becomes  a  mere 
verbal  formula,  conveying  no  idea  except  that  of  sound. 

Sensation. — The  impression  which  an  object  makes 
upon  the  organ  of  sense  is  called  sensation.  In  every 
sensation  three  things  are  necessary  :  an  object,  an  or- 
gan of  sense,  and  vitality  or  life.  For  example :  in  see- 
ing,  there  must  be  an  object  to  form  an  image,  an  eye 
upon  which  the  image  may  be  formed,  and  life,  so  that 
the  image  may  be  transferred  to  the  nervous  centres  and 
to  the  mind. 

The  eye  of  an  ox  may  be  taken,  and  the  posterior 
part  of  the  sclerotic  coat  removed ;  then,  by  placing  it 
in  an  aperture  in  a  darkened  room,  so  that  the  light 
from  outside  will  fall  upon  it  as  in  life,  the  observer  in 
the  room  can  see  upon  the  retina  a  picture  of  all  the 
objects  within  the  visual  angle  from  the  aperture  where 
the  eye  is  placed.  This  imago  ia  the  mechanical  part 
of  sensation,  and  life  only  is  needed  to  convert  it  into 
sensation  proper. 

Attention.  —  "When  a  sensation   is   carried    by    the 


32  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

nerve  to  the  brain,  the  mind  may  be  so  engaged  in  other 
matters  as  not  to  perceive  it,  and  hence  the  sensation 
does  not  become  a  possession  of  the  mind  ;  or  it  may- 
be noticed  while  the  mind  is  in  a  passive  state,  or  par- 
tially engaged  in  other  matters  ;  or  it  may  be  received 
while  the  mind  is  in  a  state  of  activity,  and  eagerly 
seeking  it.  The  attitude  of  the  mind  toward  sensations 
in  receiving  them  is  called  attention. 

JYatiwe  of  Attention. — Attention  is  thus  seen  to  be 
of  a  twofold  character,  active  and  passive,  or,  as  named 
by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  primary  and  secondary. 
Both  of  these  degrees  of  attention  may  be  exercised 
simultaneously.  "When  specially  and  actively  directed 
to  sensations  possessing  the  greatest  interest,  the  atten- 
tion is  primary ;  while  to  the  subordinate  sensations  re- 
ceived at  the  same  time,  the  attention  is  secondary. 

Examples. — The  mind  may  be  so  intent  upon  the  ob- 
servation of  an  outward  object,  upon  an  occupation  in 
which  the  hands  are  engaged,  or  upon  a  subject  of  re- 
flection, that  the  impressions  which  are  not  a  part  of 
the  subject  of  contemplation  are  entirely  unnoticed. 
Household  objects,  natural  scenery,  pictures,  music, 
conversation,  the  roar  of  the  waterfall,  and  the  rush  of 
the  locomotive,  all  make  their  impression  upon  the 
nerves  of  sense,  and  these  impressions  are  conveyed  to 
the  nervous  centres ;  but  upon  the  absorbed  and  occu- 
pied mind  they  make  no  impression,  and,  as  far  as 
mental  consciousness  is  concerned,  they  are  simply  non- 
existent. In  this  case  the  principal  sensation  receives 
the  entire  attention,  and  the  subordinate  sensations  re- 
ceive none. 

Again,  the  mind  may  be  engaged  in  examining  the 


THE  MENTAL  POWERS.  33 

qualities  of  an  object,  in  the  ordinary  vocations  of  the 
day,  or  in  the  examination  of  a  principle  in  science  or 
philosophy,  and  at  the  same  time  it  may  be  conscious 
that  the  wind  blows,  the  rain  falls,  the  fire  burns,  and 
of  many  other  things  of  like  character.  In  this  case  the 
principal  sensation  becomes  a  possession  of  the  mind 
through  primary  attention,  and  the  subordinate  sensa- 
tions through  secondary  attention. 

The  attitude  of  the  mind  in  listening  to  conversation, 
to  a  speech,  lecture,  or  sermon,  affords  another  illustra- 
tion in  point.  The  mind  of  the  listener  is  intent  upon 
the  subject  discussed ;  but  it  often  happens  that,  besides 
the  thought,  he  is  conscious  of  peculiarities  of  tone,  de- 
fects in  articulation,  and  inaccuracies  in  construction, 
on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  and  of  conversation  carried 
on  by  members  of  the  audience.  Here  the  primary 
and  secondary  attention  are  both  busy  in  receiving  and 
recording  impressions. 

In  this  matter  a  caution  is  to  be  observed  on  the 
part  of  both  the  speaker  and  the  listener.  "Where  the 
peculiarities  and  inaccuracies  of  the  speaker  are  of  so 
pronounced  a  character  as  to  compel  the  attention  of 
the  listener  to  them  instead  of  to  the  thought,  the  effect 
of  the  speech  is  lost,  and  the  time  spent  in  its  delivery 
is  wasted.  Hence  the  form  and  manner  of  the  speech 
should  receive  equal  care  with  that  bestowed  upon  the 
thought. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  the  power  of  verbal  criti- 
cism is  developed  in  advance  of  the  ability  to  receive 
and  assimilate  thought,  the  listener  will  occupy  himself 
in  the  form  and  words  of  the  address,  while  the  thought 
passes  unnoticed.     The  primary  attention  is  fixed  on 


34  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

language ;  and  this  habit  once  formed,  the  mind  busies 
itself  upon  petty  subjects  and  details,  and  becomes  in- 
capable of  receiving  the  thought  which  the  language  is 
designed  to  convey. 

Attention  to  be  Trained. — As  no  sensation  can  be 
received  by  the  mind  without  attention,  it  will  be  seen 
that  habits  of  systematic  attention  are  among  the  most 
fundamental  needs  of  education.  Not  only  should  these 
habits  of  attention  be  cultivated,  but  the  mind  should 
be  trained  to  change  passive  into  active  attention  at  will. 

Treatment  of  Attention. — In  class-recitation,  the  at- 
tention of  the  pupils  must  be  secured,  or  the  lesson  is  a 
failure.  The  first  requisite  in  securing  attention  is  to 
have  every  pupil  assume  a  proper  attitude  :  erect,  easy, 
% '  and  with  eyes  fixed  on  the  teacher.  Everything  that  is 
within  reach  of  the  hand,  and  that  is  calculated  to  di- 
vert attention,  should  be  put  aside.  Lounging,  and  a 
listless  attitude  and  manner,  should  not  be  permitted. 

Should  the  members  of  the  class  generally  be  inter- 
ested in  something  foreign  to  the  lesson,  like  a  game  in 
which  they  have  been  engaged,  a  story  that  has  just 
been  told,  or  an  interesting  piece  of  news,  the  teacher 
should  seek  to  turn  their  thoughts  in  a  new  channel  by 
some  anecdote  or  pleasantry,  which  will  gradually  lead 
to  the  work  on  hand. 

To  Keep  the  Attention,  when  once  secured,  the  teacher 
must  thoroughly  understand  the  subject ;  must-  know 
how  to  adapt  his  instruction  to  the  condition  of  the  pu- 
pil ;  and  he  must  be  able  to  present  the  subject  in  such 
an  interesting  manner,  that  the  mind  will  be  constantly 
stimulated  to  reach  out  for  new  ideas.  The  new  ideas 
presented  must  be  related  to  those  which  the  pupil  al- 


THE   MENTAL   POWERS.  35 

ready  possesses,  and  not  so  far  in  advance  but  that  these 
relations  may  be  readily  discovered. 

Perception. — The  act  of  the  mind  in  becoming  fully 
conscious  of  a  sensation  after  attention  is  secured  is 
called  perception,  an(l  ^ne  sensation  itself  is  called  a 
percept. 

Nature  of  Percepts. — The  percept  may  be  single 
and  unrelated,  arousing  no  action  in  the  mind  beyond 
the  mere  sensation  received,  and,  when  used  by  the 
mind,  reflected  back  as  received  ;  or  it  may  be  complex 
and  related,  leading  to  comparisons  and  inferences,  and 
becoming  an  element  of  intelligence. 

Examples. — One  class  of  nursery  rhymes  consists 
merely  of  jingle  without  sense.  "When  heard,  they  are 
received  as  unrelated  percepts,  and  are  given  back  in 
the  same  manner  as  received.  "Intra  mintra  cutra 
corn  "  conveys  no  idea  to  the  mind  save  that  of  sound. 
All  formulas  of  words,  the  meaning  of  which  is  not 
understood,  are  of  the  same  kind,  and  are  received  by 
the  mind  and  reflected  back,  without  arousing  further 
mental  action,  or  becoming  elements  of  real  intelli- 
gence. 

Observations  of  objects  and  of  phenomena,  and 
language  that  contains  thought  which  is  understood,  are 
complex  percepts,  stimulating  mental  activity,  and  cu- 
te ring  into  mental  processes. 

Reception  of  Knowledge. — The  act  of  perception 
completes  the  process  of  obtaining  ideas  from  the  out- 
ward world,  and  transforms  the  qualities  and  relations 
of  objects  impressed  upon  the  senses  into  intelligence, 
which  contributes  directly  to  mental  growth. 

The  group  of   activities   necessary  to   the  various 


3G  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

stages  of  obtaining  knowledge  from  objects,  including 
sensation,  attention,  and  perception,  are  called  the  per- 
ceptive or  receptive  power  of  the  mind. 

Treatment  of  Perception. — As  through  perception 
alone  does  the  mind  receive  impressions  of  the  world 
outside  of  itself,  and  as  the  facts  derived  from  percep- 
tion are  the  materials  upon  which  the  mind  feeds,  and 
by  which  the  higher  powers  are  brought  into  activity, 
the  importance  of  perceptive  training  of  the  most  thor- 
ough kind  is  at  once  manifest.  The  habitual  neglect  of 
this  training  in  schools  is  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  their  weakness,  and  is  the  point  to  which  efforts  at 
reform,  at  this  time,  should  be  principally  directed. 
The  details  of  perceptive  processes,  and  the  agencies  to 
be  used,  are  treated  more  fully  in  the  chapter  upon 
"  Object-Teaching." 

How  Knowledge  is  Retained. — The  mind  has  the 
power  not  only  of  obtaining  knowledge,  but  of  storing 
it  for  use  by  a  process  which  is  known  by  the  general 
name  of  memory.  That  memory  may  perform  its  func- 
tions without  failure,  it  is  necessary  that  an  idea  should 
be  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  mind  at  once,  or  that  it 
should  be  repeated  a  sufficient  number  of  times  to 
make  a  deep  impression. 

Arbitrary  Memory. — A  single  unrelated  perception 
of  ordinary  force  makes  but  a  faint  impression  upon  the 
mind,  and  one  that  is  easily  obliterated.  Each  of  a 
series  of  unrelated  perceptions  makes  its  own  impression 
without  deepening  that  of  another.  The  effort  to  retain 
such  perceptions  must  be  complete  in  each  instance, 
success  in  one  case  affording  no  aid  in  another.     The 


THE   MENTAL   TOWERS.  37 

power  of  retaining  single  or  unrelated  perception  is 
known  as  arbitrary  memory. 

Suggestive  Memory. — Two  or  more  dissimilar  per- 
ceptions may  be  made  upon  the  mind,  nearly  or  quite 
simultaneously,  coimected  by  time,  place,  circumstance, 
or  sequence.  These  connected  perceptions  make  a 
stronger  impression  than  either  would  separately,  and 
they  are  laid  away  together.  The  effort  to  retain  the 
series  is  no  greater  than  to  retain  a  single  one,  and  the 
connection  is  such  that  the  one  always  suggests  the 
other.  This  form  or  degree  of  retaining  bears  the  name 
of  suggestive  memory  or  suggestion. 

Associative  Memory. — The  impression  made  by  a 
single  perception  is  deepened  by  another  following  in 
the  same  channel ;  and  when  many  perceptions  are  made 
to  follow  each  other,  the  impression  is  deep  and  lasting. 
The  relations  which  bind  perceptions  closely  together 
are  likenesses,  unlikenesses,  and  dependence. 

Likenesses. — Perceptions  of  the  same  kind  appear 
to  pass  through  the  mind  in  the  same  channels,  arousing 
the  same  kind  of  mental  activity.  In  this  manner  ob- 
jects  having  the  same  qualities  are  connected  in  the 
mind.  Honey  and  sugar  are  connected  by  the  common 
quality  of  sweetness  ;  bleached  cloth  and  snow  by  white- 
ness ;  the  roar  of  the  cataract  and  thunder  by  fondness  ; 
and  anger  and  tempest  by  fierce  commotion.  When  t  lie 
likeness  of  a  new  perception  to  an  old  one  is  clearly 
seen,  the  two  are  at  once  associated  and  are  stored  to- 
gether. The  effort  necessary  to  retain  the  new  is  di- 
minished as  the  likeness  to  the  old  is  comprehended,  and 
the  two  are  made  to  pass  through  the  same  eliannel. 

Unlikenesses. — Perceptions  of  one  kind  arouse  in  the 


3S  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mind  ideas  of  an  opposite  character,  and  contrasted  ideas 
become  associated,  deepening  the  impression  of  each. 
Ideas  of  sweet  suggest  ideas  of  sour ;  black,  of  white ; 
large,  of  small ;  rough,  of  smooth ;  high,  of  low ;  rapid,  of 
slow.  These  ideas  of  opposites  are  stored  together,  and 
the  one  suggests  the  other.  When  the  one  is  retained, 
the  effort  to  retain  the  other  is  inconsiderable,  and  con- 
trast or  unlikeness  becomes  an  important  element  in  de- 
veloping the  retaining  power. 

Dependence. — One  idea  is  seen  to  depend  upon 
another ;  and  by  a  recognition  of  this  dependence,  the 
ideas  pass  through  the  same  channel,  each  deepening 
the  impression  of  the  other.  Fire  is  seen  to  depend 
upon  fuel ;  the  light  of  the  day  upon  the  sun ;  breath- 
ing upon  air ;  the  warmth  of  the  body  upon  clothing  ; 
harvest  upon  seed-time.  Ideas  linked  by  dependence 
are  stored  together  in  the  mind,  the  one  suggesting  the 
other.  When  the  relation  of  dependence  is  once  seen, 
the  effort  necessary  to  retain  is  greatly  diminished. 

This  mode  of  retaining  by  relations,  or  tins  degree  of 
the  retaining  power  of  the  mind,  is  called  associative 
memory  or  association. 

As  the  amount  of  knowledge  retained  by  association 
increases,  the  effort  necessary  to  retain  new  ideas  of  the 
same  character  decreases,  and  the  mind  is  relieved  of  the 
special  effort  necessary  to  every  act  of  arbitrary  memory. 

Abuse  of  Memory. — It  is  claimed,  for  many  studies 
that  are  shown  to  be  intrinsically  worthless,  that  they 
are  excellent  for  developing  and  strengthening  memory. 
From  the  above  considerations  it  may  be  inferred  that 
those  studies  which  are  the  best  for  supplying  the  mind 
frith  knowledge   are  the  best  for  strengthening  the 


THE  MENTAL  POWERS.  39 

memory.  In  many  school-exercises  there  is  an  effort 
made  to  have  the  pupil  retain  knowledge  by  the  use  of 
arbitrary  memory  alone.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  or- 
dinary method  of  teaching  the  alphabet.  In  this  exer- 
cise the  attention  is  directed  to  arbitrary  characters  which 
have  no  possible  relation  to  anything  ever  before  seen. 

The  facts  of  geography  and  history  are  sometimes 
taught  in  the  same  manner,  by  an  appeal  to  arbitrary 
memory  alone.  The  result  is  that  the  facts,  isolated  in 
thought,  make  very  little  impression  upon  the  mind,  and 
are  quickly  forgotten.  A  lesson  learned  in  this  manner 
may  be  retained  a  sufficient  time  for  recitation ;  but  as 
it  consists  of  disconnected  facts,  it  exhausts  the  mind  in 
its  effort  to  retain,  and  leaves  no  substance  of  mental 
growth. 

Memorizing  the  words  of  a  text-book  affords  another 
illustration  of  waste  of  power  in  this  direction.  The  at- 
tention is  fixed  primarily  upon  the  words,  and  the  idea 
may  or  may  not  be  understood.  With  no  thread  of 
thought  connecting  them  with  any  other  knowledge, 
the  ideas  must  be  retained,  if  retained  at  all,  by  arbitrary 
memory,  resulting  in  mental  exhaustion,  and  little  or  no 
permanent  good. 

The  Right  Use  of  Memory. — In  all  school-exercises 
in  which  the  lesson  of  to-day  has  some  relation  to  the 
one  of  yesterday,  and  these  relations  are  pointed  out 
and  understood,  they  become  sources  of  association,  re- 
lieving the  mind  from  the  strain  which  each  effort  of 
arbitrary  memory  imposes.  The  idea  is  first  under- 
stood, and  then  it  is  associated  with  the  word  that  ex- 
presses it.  The  two  are  then  linked  to  other  expressed 
ideas  of  a  similar  character  in  a  chain,  so  that  they  are 


40  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

not  only  remembered,  but  they  are  always  in  the  proper 
order  for  use. 

Macaulay,  in  his  review  of  the  life  of  Bacon,  says : 
"  lie  acknowledged  that  the  memory  may  be  disciplined 
to  such  a  point  as  to  be  able  to  perform  very  extraor- 
dinary feats.  But  on  such  feats  he  sets  little  value. 
The  habits  of  his  mind,  he  tells  us,  are  such  that  he 
is  not  disposed  to  rate  highly  an  accomplishment,  how- 
ever rare,  that  is  of  no  particular  use  to  mankind.  As  to 
these  prodigious  achievements  of  the  memory,  he  ranks 
them  with  the  exhibitions  of  rope-dancers  and  tumblers. 
'  The  two  performances,'  he  says,  '  are  much  of  the  same 
sort :  the  one  is  an  abuse  of  the  powers  of  the  body,  the 
other  is  an  abuse  of  the  powers  of  the  mind.  Both  may, 
perhaps,  excite  our  wonder,  but  neither  is  entitled  to  our 
respect.' " 

Perception  and  Memory. — From  the  foregoing  dis- 
cussion it  will  be  seen  that  distinct  perceptions  depend 
upon  the  acuteness  of  the  senses,  the  distinctness  of 
impressions  made  upon  them,  and  upon  the  degree  of 
attention  which  the  mind  gives  to  the  sensations  made. 
Memory  demands  all  these  conditions  with  the  addi- 
tional one  of  connected  perceptions ;  and  it  is  thus  seen 
that  the  course  of  training  best  calculated  to  develop 
the  perceptive  powers  is  the  best  for  the  training  of  the 
memory.  Exercises  for  the  express  purpose  of  strength- 
ening the  memory  are  not  only  unnecessary,  but  ob- 
structive in  the  processes  of  education. 

Recollection. — The  mind  has  power  to  recall  past 
perceptions  that  have  been  preserved  by  memory,  and 
to  bring  them  up  for  review  or  other  use.  This  power 
of  the  mind  is  called  recollection.     The  various  degrees 


TOE  MENTAL  POWERS.  41 

of  memory  and  recollections  are  known  by  the  general 
name  of  the  retentive  power  of  the  mind. 

How  Knowledge  is  Used. — The  knowledge  received 
from  the  outward  world  through  the  perceptive  powers, 
and  stored  by  the  retentive  powers,  becomes  the  basis 
for  the  action  of  the  mind  independently  of  the  objects 
from  which  the  knowledge  was  derived. 

Imagination. — The  perceptions  derived  from  ob- 
jects come  to  the  mind  in  a  certain  order  and  in  a  cer- 
tain combination,  and  are  therefore  associated  in  this 
order  and  combination.  The  mind  has  the  power  to 
sever  the  links  by  which  these  ideas  are  connected  in 
their  first  presentation,  and  to  rearrange  them  and  link 
them  into  new  combinations.  The  elements  used  in 
this  process  are  all  derived  from  perception,  but  the 
combination  may  be  something  entirely  unlike  anything 
ever  perceived,  and  essentially  a  new  creation.  This 
rearranging  or  creative  power  of  the  mind  is  called 
imagination. 

The  Depreciation  of  this  Faculty. — Many  teachers 
in  their  practice  seem  to  regard  imagination  as  an  en- 
tirely unnecessary  appendage.  They  look  upon  it  as  a 
mere  fancy,  adapted  to  ornamental  rather  than  useful 
purposes.  As  a  general  fact  in  schools,  the  culture  of 
the  imagination  is  systematically  neglected,  and  in  con- 
sequence one  great  human  power  remains  uncultivated 
and  unused. 

The  sentiment  has  also  gained  wide  popularity  that, 
while  a  cultivated  imagination  may  be  of  use  to  the 
painter  and  poet,  it  would  be  a  positive  hinderance  in 
the  performance  of  the  sterner  duties  of  life.     Mo  mis- 


42  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

take  could  be  more  fatal  to  a  true  education  than  to 
carry  tins  sentiment  into  common  practice. 

A  Higlihj  Practical  Faculty. — Imagination  is  the 
faculty  of  the  mind  which  more  than  any  other  enables 
man  to  master  the  forces  of  Nature,  and  raise  himself 
above  the  domain  of  sense.  By  its  operation  and  that 
of  reason  combined,  the  investigator  is  enabled  to  achieve 
the  highest  results  in  science  and  philosophy.  By  means 
of  it  the  poet  builds  the  verse  which  becomes  a  monu- 
ment of  immortal  beauty,  and  the  inventor  creates  a 
machine  which  ameliorates  the  condition  of  the  whole 
human  family.  It  is  the  moving  force  in  every  step  of 
human  progress,  by  constructing  ideals  which  are  higher 
and  better  than  any  that  have  yet  been  realized.  It  is 
equally  the  moving  force  by  which  each  individual  is 
able  to  reach  upward  to  a  higher  state  of  truth,  good- 
ness, or  beauty.  It  is  a  faculty  that  needs  the  most 
thorough  cultivation  in  every  human  being,  without  re- 
gard to  his  condition  or  vocation  in  life. 

Dependence  of  Imagination. — As  the  imagination 
must  make  use  of  materials  furnished  by  perception,  it 
is  readily  seen  that  perception  comes  first  in  order,  and 
that  the  value  of  imaginative  results  must  largely  de- 
pend upon  the  breadth  of  perception.  Without  the 
training  of  the  perceptive  powers,  and  the  storing  of 
the  mind  with  perceptive  ideas,  there  is  danger  that  the 
imagination  will  exceed  its  ordinary  functions,  and  create 
facts,  as  well  as  combine  real  facts  into  new  images. 

President  Porter  says :  "  The  imagination  is  capable 
of  steady  growth,  and  requires  constant  cultivation. 
The  creative  imagination,  when  most  gifted,  can  at  first 
only  rise  to  a  certain  height  above  the  materials  which 


TIIE   MENTAL  POWERS.  43 

experience  gives.  Its  succeeding  essays  are  founded 
upon  those  which  have  been  made  before;  and  it  pro- 
ceeds by  successive  steps,  more  or  less  long  and  high, 
till  it  attains  the  most  consummate  achievements  that 
are  ever  readied  by  man." 

Treatment  of  Imagination. — In  the  culture  of  the 
imagination  two  points  are  to  be  considered :  first,  that 
the  power  be  aroused  to  action  ;  and  second,  that  its  ac- 
tion be  placed  in  proper  check  and  control.  The  first 
object  is  gained  when  the  teacher  understands  the  na- 
ture of  imagination,  and  is  able  to  provide  exercises 
that  will  oblige  the  pupils  to  make  new  combinations. 
The  second  object  can  be  gained  only  by  a  course  of 
instruction  that  will  provide  objective  study  in  sufficient 
variety  and  extent  to  fully  employ  the  inquiring  activity 
of  the  mind,  and  leave  no  deficiency  in  perception  to 
be  made  up  by  imagination  ;  and  that  will  so  train  the 
higher  powers  of  the  mind,  that  imagination  will  always 
be  directed  to  productive  results.  The  processes  of  cul- 
ture for  the  imagination  are  more  fully  described  in 
succeeding  chapters. 

Reason. — The  mind  has  power  to  perceive  relations 
which  exist  between  different  objects  and  processes  of 
thought.  It  sees  the  truth  common  in  a  complex  Beriea 
of  terms,  and  perceives  the  serpiences  of  events  and  of 
natural  occurrences.  It  traces  effect  to  cause  and  cause 
to  effect.  From  relations  found  in  a  few  instances,  it 
infers  general  laws,  and  it  subjects  its  inferences  to  testa 
which  verify  the  law.  It  applies  laws  in  new  instances, 
and  brings  all  the  laws  of  mind  and  matter  into  one 
coherent  system.  It  directs  Imagination  in  its  rearrange- 
ments so  as  to  accomplish  definite  results.     The  power 


44  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

of  the  mind  to  enter  upon  these  processes,  and  to  ac- 
complish these  results,  is  called  reason. 

Definite  instruction  in  regard  to  reasoning  processes 
will  be  found  in  the  chapters  upon  "  Objective  and  Sub- 
jective Teaching." 

Judgment.  —  In  addition  to  the  faculties  already- 
enumerated,  the  mind  has  power  to  decide  in  regard  to 
an)-  matter  brought  before  it.  This  decision  may  have 
reference  to  mere  perception,  or  it  may  involve  the 
most  complex  processes  of  imagination  and  reasoning. 
In  the  former  case  the  process  is  simple,  but  in  the  lat- 
ter it  becomes  the  highest  function  of  which  the  mind 
is  capable.  This  power  of  the  mind,  when  applied  to 
the  various  uses  which  reason  has  devised,  points  out 
the  best,  and  also  the  best  which  is  available,  under  all 
the  circumstances  of  the  case.  It  finally  disposes  of  all 
matters  brought  before  the  mind,  and  from  its  decisions 
there  is  no  appeal.  This  power  of  the  mind  is  called 
judgment. 

Other  Use  of  the  Term. — Some  authors  prefer  to  con- 
sider the  power  of  deciding,  or  of  judgment,  a  part  of 
each  of  the  faculties  with  which  it  is  associated,  rather 
than  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind.  For  example,  the 
judgment  in  regard  to  two  perceptions  is  simply  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  completed  perceptions ;  and  the  judg- 
ment in  regard  to  two  processes  of  thought  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  completed  reasoning.  So  far  as  the 
practical  application  to  the  science  of  teaching  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  entirely  unimportant  which  of  these  views 
is  taken.  The  only  relevant  questions  are :  Has  the 
mind  the  power  of  deciding  %  and,  "When  is  the  power 
exercised  ? 


THE   MENTAL  POWERS.  45 

Comprehensive  Term.  —  The  several  activities  by 
which  the  mind  uses  knowledge,  apart  from  the  objects 
in  regard  to  which  such  knowledge  is  gained,  including 
imagination,  reason,  and  judgment,  are  known  as  the 
reflective  powers  of  the  mind. 

Mixed  Mental  Processes. — Besides  the  mental 
powers  for  gaining,  retaining,  and  using  knowledge, 
which  have  just  been  considered,  there  are  various  men- 
tal processes,  involving  two  or  more  of  these  powers,  to 
which  special  attention  should  be  given.  In  some  in- 
stances these  processes  are  so  important  and  elementary 
that  they  are  frequently  denominated  faculties  of  the 
mind,  and  are  so  classified  in  mental  analysis.  In  na- 
ture and  function,  however,  they  are  generally  consid- 
ered as  mixed  or  complex  mental  processes. 

Comparison. — The  power  of  the  mind  to  distinguish 
likenesses  and  unlikenesses,  either  in  objects  or  in  pro- 
cesses of  thought,  is  called  comparison.  When  two 
objects  are  compared,  both  of  which  can  be  observed  at 
once,  the  process  seems  to  involve  perception  directed 
to  two  things  instead  of  one,  and  a  judgment  in  regard 
to  the  qualities  observed.  When  one  or  both  of  the 
objects  cannot  be  observed  at  the  time,  memory  is 
brought  into  activity  as  an  auxiliary.  When  comparison 
is  directed  to  processes  of  thought,  all  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  including  perception,  memory,  imagination,  rea- 
son, and  judgment,  may  be  required. 

(  iiiiception. — The  power  of  the  mind  to  form  a  pict- 
ure of  past  perceptions  or  ideal  combinations  is  called 
conception,  and  the  picture  is  called  a  eono&pt.  A  con- 
ception of  past  ideas  is  merely  a  vivid  recollection.     A 


46  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

conception  of  ideal  scenes,  or  combinations  of  ideas,  de- 
mands the  exercise  of  memory  to  recall  the  elements  ont 
of  which  the  combination  is  formed,  and  an  effort  of 
imagination  to  arrange  these  elements  so  as  to  produce 
the  picture.  A  conception  of  objects  described,  but 
which  have  never  been  perceived,  involves  perception 
of  familiar  objects,  memory  of  the  ideas  perceived,  im- 
agination to  rearrange  the  familiar  ideas,  and  reason  to 
make  the  new  combination  conform  to  the  description 
given. 

Okdek  or  Mental  Development. —  The  order  of 
the  development  of  the  mind  may  be  determined  by 
considering  the  relations  of  knowledge  to  the  mind,  and 
by  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  mind  in  its  gradual 
change  from  infancy  to  maturity. 

In  regard  to  the  relations  of  knowledge  to  mind,  it 
will  be  seen,  from  the  foregoing  presentations,  that 
knowledge  must  be  obtained  before  it  can  be  retained, 
and  that  it  must  be  both  obtained  and  retained  before 
it  can  be  used. 

In  obtaining  knowledge  of  objects,  sensations  must 
be  experienced  before  attention  can  be  given,  and  both 
sensation  and  attention  must  precede  perception. 

In  retaining  knowledge,  the  successive  steps  must 
follow  the  corresponding  steps  of  perception.  First  a 
single  sensation  is  impressed  upon  the  memory,  then 
groups  of  sensations,  and  at  a  later  period  the  principle 
of  association  obtains. 

The  higher  forms  of  association  become  possible 
only  when  the  mind  is  comparatively  well  furnished 
with  facts. 


THE   MENTAL   POWERS.  47 

Arranged  according  to  the  character  of  the  knowl- 
edge upon  which  they  arc  exercised,  the  respective  func- 
tions of  the  imagination,  reason,  and  judgment  seem  to 
follow  each  other  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been 
presented. 

These  Principles  Confirmed  l>j  Observation. — By 
a  careful  study  of  the  gradual  growth  of  mind  from  in- 
fancy to  maturity,  it  is  found  that  the  mental  activities 
at  each  stage  of  growth  exactly  correspond  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  development  evolved  from  a  study  of  the  rela- 
tions of  knowledge  to  mind. 

In  childhood  the  senses  and  the  observing  powers 
are  keen  and  active,  and  the  mind  eagerly  takes  in  and 
retains  impressions  from  the  outward  world.  During 
this  period,  mental  activity  is  chiefly  directed  to  the  per- 
ception of  the  qualities  of  objects  and  their  simple  reJa- 
tions. 

As  the  mind  grows,  the  interest  gradually  changes 
from  these  qualities  and  simple  relations  to  the  more 
obscure  and  complex  relations  of  objects.  Finally  it 
rises  to  the  relations  of  thought,  until  at  maturity  the 
reflective  powers  are  not  only  most  active,  but  th«y 
guide  and  control  the  entire  action  of  the  mind. 

Age  an  Important  Consideration. —  In  furnishing 
the  mind  with  its  appropriate  knowledge,  the  particular 
period  of  life  through  which  the  individual  is  passing 
is  to  be  considered  as  no  less  important  than  the  Btage 
of  mental  development  at  which  he  has  arrived.  Per- 
ceptive studies,  or  those  that  appeal  directly  to  the 
senses,  are  best  adapted  to  childhood,  because  they  alone 
sati.-fy  the  mental  power  most  active  at  the  time,  and 
furnish  the   materials   upon  which   the  higher  mental 


48  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

powers  exercise  themselves  at  a  later  period :  studies, 
on  the  contrary,  that  appeal  mostly  to  the  reasoning 
faculties,  have  no  place  in  the  primary  school,  but  be- 
long to  the  advanced  course  of  study.  At  a  period  near 
maturity,  or  at  middle  age,  the  mind  is  usually  more 
interested  in  reflective  than  in  perceptive  processes  ;  and 
if  the  perceptive  period  has  passed  without  its  legiti- 
mate work,  the  mind  is  poorly  supplied  with  the  ma- 
terials of  thought,  and  the  reflective  powers,  operating 
upon  narrow  and  insufficient  grounds,  reach  no  just  or 
valuable  conclusions. 

Expbession  as  Related  to  Mental  Development. 
— The  activities  of  the  mind  are  so  intimately  associated 
with  language  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  consider 
the  two  as  separate.  All  ideas  and  thoughts  have  their 
representatives  in  words  and  sentences,  and  some  phi- 
losophers have  contended  that  it  is  impossible  to  think 
without  thinking  in  language. 

Without  adopting  this  extreme  view,  however,  we 
see  that  in  all  mental  operations  language  acts  an  im- 
portant part.  ~No  sooner  does  a  new  idea  present  itself, 
than  the  mind  at  once  seeks  for  a  word  to  express  it. 
Should  no  suitable  word  be  found,  the  idea  is  expressed 
by  a  combination  of  words,  or  by  a  word  coined  for  the 
occasion.  The  mental  act  of  receiving  ideas  and  pre- 
paring them  for  use  is  not  complete  until  they  are  not 
only  fully  possessed  by  the  mind  but  fitly  expressed  in 
words. 

This  Position  Illustrated. — In  his  work  on  Logic,  Sir 
William  Hamilton  says :  "  A  country  may  be  overrun  by 
an  armed  host,  but  it  is  only  conquered  by  the  establish- 


THE  MENTAL  POWERS.  49 

ment  of  fortresses.  Words  are  the  fortresses  of  thought. 
They  enable  us  to  realize  our  dominion  over  what  wo 
have  already  overran  in  thought ;  to  make  every  intel- 
lectual conquest  the  basis  of  operations  for  others  still 
beyond.  Or  another  illustration  :  You  have  all  heard 
of  the  process  of  tunneling  through  a  sand-bank.  In 
this  Operation  it  is  impossible  to  succeed  unless  every 
foot — nay,  almost  every  inch — in  our  progress  be  secured 
by  an  arch  of  masonry,  before  we  attempt  the  excava- 
tion of  another.  Now  language  is  to  the  mind  precisely 
what  the  arch  is  to  the  tunnel.  The  power  of  thinking 
and  the  power  of  excavation  are  not  dependent  on  the 
word  in  the  one  case  or  the  mason- work  in  the  other ; 
but  without  these  subsidiaries,  neither  process  could 
be  carried  on  beyond  its  rudimentary  commencement. 
Though,  therefore,  we  allow  that  every  movement  for- 
ward in  language  must  be  determined  by  an  antecedent 
movement  forward  in  thought ;  still,  unless  thought  be 
accompanied,  at  each  point  of  its  evolution,  by  a  corre- 
sponding evolution  of  language,  its  further  development 
is  arrested." 

The  Twofold  Office  of  Language. — The  advance  of 
ideas  and  of  language,  then,  must  go  on  together.  Lan- 
guage is  used  for  the  double  purpose  of  expressing  and 
of  preserving  knowledge.  Should  ideas  fail  of  finding 
expression,  they  are  imperfectly  preserved  or  entirely 
lost.  Should  expression  be  sought  in  advance  of  ideas, 
the  words  uttered  would  be  senseless  as  the  chattering* 
of  a  parrot.  In  each  step  of  progress  the  idea  precedes 
the  expression,  but  should  be  immediately  followed  by  the 
word.  The  two  henceforth  become  so  blended  that  they 
cannot  be  separated  in  practice,  and  scarcely  so  in  thought. 
3 


50  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

The  Importance  of  Cultivating  Language  along  with 
thought,  in  teaching,  oven  to  the  extent  of  carrying  tins 
twofold  training  into  every  branch  of  instruction,  can- 
not be  too  strongly  urged.  At  least  half  of  the  time  of 
recitation  should  be  given  to  expression,  so  that  the 
pupil  may  have  the  advantage  of  language  in  both  mas- 
tering and  remembering  the  thought.  When  this 
method  is  habitually  practised,  language  is  usually  ac- 
quired by  secondary  attention,  while  primary  attention 
is  fixed  on  the  thought.  Perspicuity  of  expression  fol- 
lows clearness  of  thinking,  and  mistakes  in  expression 
usually  result  from  want  of  clearness  in  the  thought. 
The  most  effectual  method  of  correcting  such  mistakes 
is  by  discussing  the  thought  until  it  is  clearly  understood, 
and  then  requiring  it  to  be  expressed  again.  By  fol- 
lowing this  plan  of  criticism,  in  practical  instruction, 
much  onerous  labor  is  saved  the  teacher,  and  many  of 
the  distinctive  exercises  in  language  of  maturer  years 
are  rendered  unnecessary. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  IXSTRUCTIOX. 

General  Yiew  of  Present  Practices. — Until  with- 
in a  comparatively  recent  period,  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  principles  which  must  govern  every 
intelligent  effort  to  impart  instruction.  Teachers  have 
been  content  to  follow  the  methods  in  which  they  them- 
selves were  taught,  until  the  process  of  teaching  has 
become  a  mere  mechanical  routine. 

Preliminary  to  the  examination  of  philosophical 
methods  of  teaching,  we  shall  notice  some  of  the  prac- 
tices— they  can  scarcely  be  called  methods — which  are 
always  to  be  avoided. 

Wrong  Practices.  —  The  great  conspicuous  evil 
practice  in  our  schools,  once  almost  universal,  and  still 
widely  prevalent,  is  that  of  obliging  pupils  to  commit 
to  memory  the  words  of  the  text-book.  This  practice 
seems  to  have  its  origin  either  in  the  ignorance  or  the 
indolence  of  the  teacher,  and  is  one  calculated  directly 
to  stultify,  rather  than  expand,  the  mind.  It  fixes  the 
primary  attention  on  words  rather  than  on  thoughts, 
which  words  are  arranged  to  express.  The  words  mem- 
orized to-day  are  forgotten  to-morrow,  and   often  the 


52  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

thought  is  never  obtained.  This  process,  by  substitut- 
ing apparent  for  real  knowledge,  so  far  consumes  the 
time  of  the  pupil  that  the  attainment  of  real  knowledge 
is  rendered  nearly  or  quite  impossible  during  the  school 
period. 

Examples  of  this  Practice. — Pupils  are  frequently 
obliged  to  recite,  verbatim,  the  outlines  of  history,  and 
teachers  often  defend  the  practice  of  rote-teaching  in 
this  study  after  they  have  given  it  up  in  the  other 
branches  of  instruction.  Upon  examining  a  class  in- 
structed in  this  manner,  in  one  of  the  most  noted  schools 
in  the  country,  a  few  years  since,  it  was  found  that  the 
pupils  could  glibly  repeat  the  lesson  of  to-day  ;  that  they 
could  recite  about  half  of  that  of  yesterday ;  but  that 
they  could  not  remember  one  word  of  the  lesson  of  a 
week  ago.  "Wliile  this  was  the  fact  in  regard  to  the 
words  of  the  lesson,  it  was  found  that  the  thoughts 
which  the  words  were  supposed  to  represent  had  been 
entirely  neglected — no  one  in  the  class  having  any 
knowledge  of  the  sequence  or  relations  of  events. 

A  little  girl  of  eleven  years  came  home  late  one  day, 
and,  on  inquiry,  said  she  was  detained  because  she  could 
not  recite  her  lesson  in  geography.  As  she  had  forgot- 
ten but  one  word,  however,  she  soon  learned  it,  com- 
pleted the  lesson,  and  was  dismissed.  "When  asked  what 
the  word  was,  she  could  not  tell,  although  she  came 
fresh  from  her  recitation  only  across  the  street.  Upon 
examination,  the  following  was  found  to  be  the  sentence 
which  made  the  difficulty,  and  which  she  and  the  other 
members  of  the  class  were  obliged  to  repeat :  "  The 
Danubian  provinces  of  Servia,  Moldavia,  and  "Walla- 
chia  are  nominally  independent  of  the  Sublime  Porte." 


OBJECTIVE   COURSE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  53 

Further  investigation  proved  that  the  teacher  had  made 
no  effort  to  explain  the  meaning  of  any  one  of  the 
terms  used,  that  no  maps  were  employed  in  the  recita- 
tion, and  that  the  members  of  the  class  were  as  pro- 
foundly ignorant  of  the  subject  they  were  supposed  to 
be  learning  as  though  it  had  been  written  in  Choctaw. 

Rote-Learning. — The  memorizing  of  definitions, 
principles,  and  rules  in  science,  before  the  facts  upon 
which  they  are  based  are  known,  is  equally  repugnant 
to  the  well-settled  principles  of  mental  development. 

Herbert  Spencer  says :  "  The  once  universal  prac- 
tice of  learning  by  rote  is  daily  falling  more  into  dis- 
credit. All  modern  authorities  condemn  the  old  me- 
chanical way  of  teaching  the  alphabet.  The  rote-system, 
like  other  systems  of  its  age,  made  more  of  the  forms 
and  symbols  than  of  the  things  symbolized.  To  repeat 
the  words  correctly  was  everything,  to  understand  the 
meaning  nothing  ;  and  thus  the  spirit  was  sacrificed  to 
the  letter.  It  is  at  length  perceived  that,  in  this  case  as 
in  others,  such  a  result  is  not  accidental  but  necessary  ; 
that  in  proportion  as  there  is  attention  to  the  signs, 
there  must  be  inattention  to  the  things  signified." 

Nervous  Action. — Dr.  Carpenter,  in  his  "  Mental 
Physiology,"  clearly  shows  the  manner  in  which  im- 
pressions upon  the  nerves  are  received  and  treated. 
The  nervous  centres  consist  of  the  cerebrum  or  anterior 
brain,  the  principal  nervous  mass,  and  of  the  subordinate 
centres,  the  sensorinm  or  base  of  the  brain,  the  spinal 
cord,  and  the  ganglions.  Impressions  made  upon  the 
nerves,  and  carried  to  the  cerebrum,  become  a  possession 
of  the  mind  and  are  transmuted  into  intelligence  ;  those 
carried  to  the  spinal  cord  or  ganglions  produce  reflex 


54  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

or  automatic  actions  which  do  not  involve  intelligence  ; 
and  those  carried  to  the  sensorium  and  no  farther,  pro- 
duce a  semi-reflex  action  in  which  there  are  only  faint 
traces  of  intelligence.  Impressions  made  upon  the  sen- 
sorium are  reflected  back  in  the  same  manner  as  re- 
ceived, as  when  words  or  formulas  are  repeated  when 
not  understood. 

Semi-Reflex  Action. — The  following  quotation  from 
a  late  article  in  the  London  Times  reviewing  the  work 
of  Dr.  Carpenter  further  illustrates  this  principle,  and 
shows  its  application  directly  to  the  work  of  teaching. 

"  There  are  probably  few  teachers  who  have  not 
heard  something  about  the  possibility  of  '  learning  by 
rote,'  which  is  one  form  of  mere  sensorial  activity  in 
which  certain  sounds  have  become  associated  with  the 
sight  of  certain  written  or  printed  symbols,  and  are  ut- 
tered when  these  symbols  are  seen  and  remembered  ;  but 
there  probably  is  not  one  in  a  thousand  who  understands 
what  '  learning  by  rote '  is ;  how  it  is  accomplished  by 
the  nervous  centres  ;  how  it  differs  from  learning  with 
the  intelligence ;  and  how  it  may  be  detected  and  ex- 
posed under  whatever  guise  it  may  be  concealed. 

"  The  great  majority  of  teachers  think  that  they 
have  banished  learning  by  rote  when  their  pupils  are 
able  to  explain  their  first  answer  to  a  question  by  a 
second  one ;  the  second,  in  most  cases,  being  as  purely 
sensorial  a  symbol  as  the  first,  and  the  original  sight 
symbol,  with  its  two  vocal  equivalents,  being  really,  as 
far  as  ideation  is  concerned,  an  unknown  quantity,  for 
which  either  of  the  two  other  unknown  quantities  may 
be  substituted. 

"  One  of  the  most  familiar  illustrations  of  sensorial 


OBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  55 

action  is  that  which  was  recorded  by  the  late  Mr.  Brook- 
field,  in  which  two  children,  aged  about  eleven  years, 
who  did  their  arithmetic  and  reading  tolerably  well, 
who  wrote  something  pretty  legible,  intelligible,  and 
sensible  about  an  omnibus,  and  about  a  steamboat,  were 
called  upon  to  write  the  answers  of  the  Church  Cate- 
chism to  two  questions.  The  children  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  rej>eat  the  Catechism  during  half  an  hour  each 
day  in  day-school  and  Sunday-school,  for  four  or  five 
years,  and  this  is  what  they  wrote : 

" '  My  duty  toads  God  is  to  bleed  in  him  to  fearin 
and  to  loaf  withold  your  arts  withold  my  mine  withold 
my  sold  and  with  my  sernth  to  whirchp  and  to  give 
thanks  to  put  my  old  trast  in  him  to  call  upon  him  to 
onner  his  old  name  and  his  world  and  to  save  him  truly 
all  the  days  of  my  life's  end.' 

" '  My  dooty  tords  my  nabers  to  love  him  as  thyself 
to  do  to  all  men  as  I  wed  thou  shall  do  and  to  me  to 
love  onner  and  suke  my  farther  and  mother  to  onner 
and  to  bay  the  queen  and  all  that  one  pet  in  a  forty  un- 
der her  to  smit  myself  to  all  my  goones  teaches  spiritial 
pastures  and  marsters  to  oughten  mysilf  lordly  and 
every  to  all  my  betters  to  hut  no  body  by  would  nor  deed 
to  be  treu  in  jest  in  all  my  deelins  to  beer  no  malis  nor 
ated  in  your  arts  to  kep  my  ands  from  peckin  and  steel 
my  turn  from  evil  speak  and  lawing  and  slanders  not  to 
civet  or  desar  othermans  good  but  to  learn  labour  trewly 
to  get  my  own  leaving  and  to  do  my  doody  in  that  state 
if  life  and  to  each  it  his  please  God  to  call  men.' 

'"It  will  be  observed  that  these  written  answers,  if 
recited  with  sufficient  rapidity,  in  the  customary  school- 
room patter,  really  bear  a  horrible  likeness  to  the  sounds 


5G  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

of  tlic  genuine  one ;  and  there  can  be  but  little  doubt 
that  the  writers  and  their  classmates  had  so  recited 
them  for  years,  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  all  who  were 
'pet  in  a  forty'  over  them. 

"  Even  in  Mr.  Brookfield's  report,  from  which  the 
examples  are  taken,  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  percep- 
tion that  they  represent  a  nervous  action  which,  as  a 
result  of  teaching,  is  wholly  wrong  in  kind,  and  not 
only  in  degree,  and  which,  so  far  as  it  is  permitted  to 
continue,  is  not  merely  an  expression  of  waste  of  time, 
but  of  the  growth  of  habits,  directly  antagonistic  to,  and 
incompatible  with,  those  which  it  should  be  the  chief 
object  of  instruction  to  encourage. 

"  Until  this  is  recognized  and  acted  upon,  and  until 
teachers  have  some  knowledge  of  the  profound  differ- 
ence between  the  two  kinds  of  action  as  modes  of  men- 
tal operation,  it  is  hopeless  to  expect  from  schools  an 
amount  of  cultivation  of  the  intelligence  at  all  commen- 
surate with  the  magnitude  and  costliness  of  the  ma- 
chinery which  is  employed." 

Studies  too  Difficult. — Another  habit,  which  is  very 
prevalent  and  which  is  almost  as  pernicious,  is  that  of 
assigning  to  pupils  studies  too  difficult  for  their  compre- 
hension. "Without  really  understanding  a  single  prin- 
ciple of  the  subject  taught,  they  career  along,  occasion- 
ally catching  a  gleam  of  knowledge,  but  falling  far  short 
of  what  might  be  accomplished  in  the  same  length  of 
time  by  rightlyd-irected  efforts. 

Examples. — The  prevalent  method  of  teaching  men- 
tal arithmetic  to  small  children  is  a  case  in  point.  Be- 
cause mental  arithmetic  has  been  proved  to  be  a  most 
excellent  discipline  for  the  mind  at  the  proper  time,  it 


OBJECTIVE  COURSE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  57 

therefore  seems  to  be  assumed  that  it  will  be  of  great 
value  at  all  times.  Hence  it  has  been  extensively  in- 
troduced into  primary  schools.  By  the  study  of  it 
young  pupils  have  been  obliged  to  go  through  reason- 
ing processes  which  would  severely  tax  the  mental  pow- 
ers of  adults,  and  this,  too,  before  their  reasoning  facul- 
ties were  developed  sufficiently  to  readily  understand 
the  subject.  The  result  has  been  that  frequently  pupils 
have  learned  the  formulas  by  which  the  examples  are 
analyzed,  just  as  they  would  learn  any  other  form  of 
words,  while  the  real  reasoning  contained  in  the  process 
was  never  understood. 

In  grammar,  the  same  mistake  is  often  made.  Through 
the  erroneous  notion  that  English  grammar  teaches  how 
to  speak  and  write  the  English  language  correctly,  text- 
books in  grammar  are  put  into  the  hands  of  young  chil- 
dren, and  their  minds  are  crammed  with  definitions  and 
rules  concerning  the  philosophic  structure  of  language, 
and  this  before  their  mental  powers  are  so  far  developed 
as  to  comprehend  the  principles  which  are  sought  to  be 
given.  The  matter  memorized,  having  failed  to  reach 
the  understanding,  becomes  a  hinderance  rather  than  a 
help  to  education. 

In  reading-classes  the  same  fault  obtains.  Pupils 
are  permitted,  through  the  ambition  or  weakness  of  their 
teacher,  to  read  in  books  entirely  above  their  compre- 
hension ;  and  the  result  is,  that  they  fail  to  obtain  any 
knowledge  from  their  reading,  while  the  delivery,  as 
a  necessary  consequence,  becomes  expressionless  and 
monotonous. 

Faults  of  Omission. — The  next  great  fault  is  a  de- 
fect or  omission  rather  than  a  positive  evil.     The  pri- 


58  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mary  exercises  for  training  the  observing  powers  are 
neglected  to  such  an  extent  that,  as  far  as  the  schools 
are  concerned,  pupils  might  almost  as  well  be  born  deaf 
and  blind.  The  objects  with  which  they  come  daily  in 
contact,  the  phenomena  which  constantly  appear  before 
their  eyes,  the  facts  of  Nature  and  of  consciousness  upon 
which  all  science  and  philosophy  are  based,  are  nearly, 
if  not  entirely,  neglected.  At  the  same  time  the  studies 
pursued  have  little  connection  with  matters  of  common 
interest,  and,  as  a  consequence,  fail  of  bestowing  that 
practical  knowledge  and  breadth  of  culture  necessary  to 
the  highest  success. 

Examples. — Generally,  in  schools,  very  little  if  any 
attention  is  given  to  the  open  book  of  Nature,  which 
contains  lessons  of  such  transcendent  importance  and 
interest.  One  series  of  the  lessons  thus  neglected  is 
the  peculiar  stratification,  marking,  and  fossils  of  the 
rocks,  each  of  which  is  a  key  to  a  history  more  profound 
than  that  recorded  in  any  human  chronology.  Another 
similar  neglected  series  is  found  in  the  wonderful  vari- 
ety of  plants,  each  one  an  object  of  beauty,  and  all  to- 
gether, in  their  manner  of  growth,  in  their  distribution, 
and  in  their  peculiar  habits,  furnishing  lessons  which 
cannot  fail  to  leave  their  impress  of  mental  growth,  and 
to  become  sources  of  never-ending  delight  while  life 
and  sense  last.  The  curious  and  strange  fonns  of  ani- 
mal life,  the  metamorphoses  of  insects  from  creeping 
worms  to  gorgeous  butterflies,  the  peculiar  habits  of 
beasts  and  birds,  and  the  instincts  which  so  nearly  ap- 
proach reasoning,  are  all  replete  with  these  interesting 
lessons,  and  they  are  usually  so  neglected  that  the  mind 
fails  of  comprehending  the  evidences  of  intelligence 


OBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  59 

found  in  the  infinite  variety  and  profound  laws  of  the 
universe. 

Carlyle  says :  "  For  many  years  it  has  been  one  of 
my  most  constant  regrets  that  no  schoolmaster  of  mine 
had  a  knowledge  of  natural  history,  so  far,  at  least,  as 
to  have  taught  me  the  grasses  that  grow  by  the  wayside, 
and  the  little  winged  and  wingless  neighbors  that  are 
continually  meeting  me  with  a  salutation  which  I  can- 
not answer,  as  things  are.  Why  did  not  somebody  teach 
me  the  constellations,  too,  and  make  me  at  home  in  the 
starry  heavens  which  are  always  overhead,  and  which  I 
don't  half  know  to  this  day  ?  I  love  to  prophesy  that 
the  time  will  come  when  the  schoolmaster  will  be  strictly 
required  to  possess  these  two  capabilities,  and  that  no 
ingenious  little  denizen  of  this  universe  be  thencefor- 
ward debarred  from  his  right  of  liberty  in  these  two 
departments,  and  doomed  to  look  on  them,  as  if  across 
grated  fences,  all  his  life." 

Race  and  Individual  Growth. — The  study  of  his- 
tory shows  that  the  progress  of  the  race,  when  the  whole 
human  family  is  taken  into  consideration,  has  been  a 
continuous  growth  or  change  in  a  definite  direction,  and 
according  to  certain  established  principles  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  mind.  Commencing  at  a  period  when  physical 
Nature  tyrannized  over  man,  the  change  has  been  con- 
tinuously in  the  direction,  first,  of  subduing  Nature,  then 
of  quickening  and  refining  the  senses ;  after  this,  of 
exalting  the  reason  above  the  senses,  and  of  converting 
meagre  notions  into  definite,  connected,  and  well-defined 
thought. 

By  a  careful  study  of  mental  development,  we  find 


60  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

that  the  individual  passes  through  changes  analogous  to 
the  changes  that  affect  the  race.  In  infancy  there  is  the 
same  helplessness  in  regard  to  Nature,  the  same  blunt- 
ness  of  the  perception,  the  same  subordination  of  the 
reason  to  the  senses,  and  the  same  vagueness  of  ideas 
and  thought.  From  infancy  to  maturity,  the  progress 
is  continuous  toward  making  Nature  a  servant  rather 
than  a  master,  of  making  thought  systematic  and  defi- 
nite, and  of  rendering  each  step  in  intelligence  a  help 
toward  the  attainment  of  higher  intelligence. 

Historical  Examples. — In  the  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, as  given  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  we  may 
see  the  development  of  a  people  from  a  very  low  con- 
dition of  slavery  and  ignorance  to  a  point  of  intellectual 
strength  and  refinement  made  remarkable  by  their  dis- 
tinguished prophets,  poets,  and  teachers.  The  contrast 
set  up  by  a  comparison  of  this  people,  just  liberated 
from  Egyptian  bondage,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  na- 
tion to  which  Jesus  was  born  on  the  other,  is  very 
striking.  The  educational  means  used  in  the  work  of 
this  development  (we  have  here  nothing  to  do  with  the 
spiritual  cultus  of  the  Jews)  is  equally  worthy  of  note. 
At  first,  the  stupid  and  sensuous  mind  could  be  aroused 
and  instructed  only  by  addressing  the  senses.  Gradually 
the  tyranny  of  sense  yields  to  the  higher  power  of  an 
unfolding  imagination,  and  finally  the  old  system  of 
symbol  and  song  passes  away,  and  the  reason  of  this 
people  is  addressed  by  the  statement  of  principles  and 
the  analysis  of  mental  facts.  Yet,  even  in  this  new 
system  of  education,  the  Great  Teacher  is  careful  not  to 
violate  the  laws  of  mental  growth.  To  the  untutored 
pupils  whom  He  gathered  about  Him,  He  said :  "  I  have 


OBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  61 

many  things  to  say  unto  you,  but  ye  cannot  bear  them 
now." 

An  equally  remarkable  development  is  illustrated  in 
the  history  of  the  English  nation,  which,  with  its  settled 
principles  of  government,  its  reflective  literature,  its 
art,  and  philosophy,  springs  from  an  uncouth  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin.  The  advancement  of  a  nation  may  be 
judged  from  the  progress  of  its  literature ;  for  the  liter- 
ature of  a  people  indicates,  at  each  period,  the  steps  of 
its  intellectual  development.  The  beginnings  of  a  na- 
tion's -literature  may  be  traced  to  an  attempt  to  record 
the  simplest  facts  of  observation  and  sense,  or  the  com- 
bination of  these  facts  into  rude  imaginative  creations. 
Hence  legend,  story,  poetry,  and  the  drama,  always  pre- 
cede systematic  history,  dialectics,  or  philosophy.  In 
the  history  of  every  enlightened  nation,  the  presenta- 
tion of  fact  and  the  representation  of  picture  in  answer 
to  the  question  "  What  ? "  have  always  taken  precedence 
of  the  explanation  of  facts  or  the  analysis  of  principles 
in  answer  to  the  question  "  "Why  I "  The  age  of  Homer 
comes  before  the  ages  of  Thales,  Pythagoras,  and  Aris- 
totle. The  primitive  literature  of  Eome  appears  in  the 
form  of  minstrelsy.  The  literature  of  England  passes 
through  the  simple  poems  and  tales  of  Piers  Plough- 
man, Mandeville,  and  Chaucer,  before  it  reaches  the 
stern  philosophy  of  Bacon,  or  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  lit- 
erature of  the  Elizabethan  age. 

So  also  in  regard  to  the  development  of  government 
The  blind   struggle   of   centuries  brought  at    last   the 
Great  Charter;  but  defined  principles  of  government 
were  of  much  later  date.     Upon  this  point  Macanlay, 
says:  "  It  is  only  in  a  refined  and  speculative  age  that 


62  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

a  polity  is  constructed  on  system.  In  rude  societies  the 
progress  of  government  resembles  the  progress  of  lan- 
guage and  of  versification.  Rude  societies  have  lan- 
guage, and  often  copious  and  energetic  language ;  but 
they  have  no  scientific  grammar,  no  definitions  of  nouns 
and  verbs,  no  names  for  declensions,  moods,  tenses, 
voices.  Rude  societies  have  versification,  and  often 
versification  of  great  power  and  sweetness ;  but  they 
have  no  metrical  canons ;  and  the  minstrel,  whose  num- 
bers, regulated  solely  by  his  ear,  are  the  delight  of 
his  audience,  would  himself  be  unable  to  say  of  how 
many  dactyls  and  trochees  each  of  his  lines  consists. 
As  eloquence  exists  before  syntax  and  song  before  pros- 
ody, so  government  may  exist  in  a  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence before  the  limits  of  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  power  have  been  traced  with  precision." 

From  the  study  of  the  development  of  the  race  we 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  those  general  principles  which 
control  the  development  of  the  individual ;  and  con- 
versely, the  careful  examination  of  individual  growth 
will  serve  to  throw  light  on  obscure  points  in  the  his- 
torical development  of  the  race.  The  knowledge  gained 
from  this  twofold  examination  of  individual  and  race 
development  has  scarcely  yet  been  organized  into  a  sci- 
ence ;  but  enough  is  now  understood  to  be  of  the  great- 
est service  to  the  teacher  in  preparing  his  course  of 
study  and  in  determining  the  methods  to  be  pursued. 

Objective  or  Inductive  Method. — The  first  step  in 
mental  growth  and  consequently  in  education  is  to  ob- 
tain knowledge.  This  knowledge  comes  in  the  form  of 
perceptions  of  the  qualities  of  objects,  or  facts  in  regard 


OBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  63 

to  the  relations  of  objects.  The  primary  perceptions  or 
facts  come  through  the  senses.  This  primary  knowledge 
becomes  the  basis  for  all  subsequent  operations  of  the 
mind. 

The  second  step  is  a  comparison  of  two  or  more  per- 
ceptions and  the  recognition  of  their  likenesses  and  un- 
likenesses.  This  comparison  commences  with  objects 
the  qualities  of  which,  such  as  form,  size,  and  color,  are 
like  or  unlike.  The  facts  concerning  objects  and  their 
relations  are  also  compared  in  the  same  manner. 

Grouping. — "When  objects  are  alike,  they  are  asso- 
ciated in  thought,  and  form  a  group.  Qualities  of  ob- 
jects may  be  considered  apart  from  the  objects  them- 
selves, and  associated  by  their  likeness,  forming  a  group 
of  qualities — as  square,  large,  and  red.  Facts  concern- 
ing objects  may  in  like  manner  be  compared,  and  formed 
into  a  single  group  by  their  likenesses. 

"When  objects  are  unlike,  they  are  separated  in  thought 
and  are  placed  apart,  forming  the  basis  of  different 
groups.  Qualities  of  objects,  and  facts  concerning  ob- 
jects, are  in  the  same  way  separated  by  their  unlikenesses 
and  formed  into  different  groups.  Unlikenesses  as  well 
as  likenesses  form  the  basis  of  association  for  the  assist- 
ance of  memory. 

Objective  Classification. — In  comparing  a  large  num- 
ber of  objects,  several  being  found  alike  may  constitute 
a  group ;  several  others  unlike  the  first  may  also  be 
alike  and  form  another  group,  and  this  process  may  con- 
tinue until  a  number  of  distinct  groups  are  formed. 
The  basis  of  each  group  is  likeness,  and  the  basis  of 
the  several  groups  is  anlikeness.  When  these  several 
groups,  unlike  in  particular  qualities,  are  alike  in  some 


64  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

general  characteristics,  the  different  groups  are  called 
classes,  and  the  process  of  forming  them  is  termed  Ob- 
jective Classification. 

Generalisation,  Law,  Principle,  Definition. — The 
characteristic  in  which  the  different  classes  are  alike  is  a 
general  truth,  and  the  process  or  power  of  obtaining  a 
general  truth  is  called  generalisation.  When  the  gen- 
eral truth  expresses  invariable  relations,  it  is  called  a  law. 
Assumed  as  the  basis  of  further  mental  operations,  a  law 
is  called  a  principle.  When  the  general  truth  expresses 
a  description,  or  fixes  the  limits  of  a  subject,  it  is  called 
a  definition. 

Examples. — A  number  of  objects  may  be  compared. 
From  their  likenesses  we  call  one  group  hats,  another 
group  boots,  and  still  another  coats.  The  articles  in  each 
group  are  alike  in  regard  to  the  particular  use  for  which 
they  are  made ;  and  the  groups  are  unlike  because  the 
uses  of  the  articles  in  the  different  groups  are  not  iden- 
tical. By  a  further  investigation,  however,  we  find  that 
hats,  boots,  and  coats  are  all  clothing  for  the  protection 
and  comfort  of  the  body — the  general  truth  arrived  at 
being  the  idea  expressed  by  the  word  clothing.  A  de- 
scription of  this  idea  is  a  definition. 

A  phenomenon  is  observed,  like  the  falling  of  an 
apple.  This  fact  is  compared  with  the  falling  of  other 
substances,  and  a  number  of  facts  are  grouped  together 
by  their  likenesses.  We  observe,  also,  that  bodies,  like 
the  articles  on  a  table,  do  not  fall  to  the  ground.  We 
have  now  two  groups,  and  the  difference  we  observe  be- 
tween them  relates  to  their  support.  By  a  further  in- 
vestigation we  find  that  all  bodies  not  supported  fall  to 
the  ground,  and  this  conclusion  is  a  law.     By  a  wider 


OBJECTIVE   COURSE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  65 

investigation,  involving  a  greater  number  of  facts  and 
relations,  we  infer  that  all  bodies  have  a  tendency  to  ap- 
proach each  other,  and  this  inference  is  also  a  law — but 
a  law  of  wider  application  than  the  preceding  one. 

This  process  of  commencing  with  simple  perceptions, 
and  ending  in  the  discovery  of  a  law  or  in  the  expression 
of  a  definition,  is  prlma?'y,  because  it  embraces  the  first 
steps  which  the  mind  must  take  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  ;  it  is  objective,  because  it  begins  with  an  ob- 
ject ;  it  is  synthetic,  because  it  aggregates  or  puts  to- 
gether ;  and  it  is  inductive,  because  it  leads  into  a  law 
or  principle. 

Benefits  of  the  Objective  Method.  —  In  regard  to 
mental  development,  the  objective  course  contributes 
mainly  to  mental  growth,  and  it  is  the  only  possible 
course  by  which  full  mental  growth  can  be  attained. 
By  this  method  the  faculties  are  exercised  in  the  exact 
order  in  which  they  are  successively  brought  into 
activity  by  a  natural  and  normal  development.  The 
method  itself  has  a  tendency  to  arouse  this  activity  in 
its  natural  order. 

In  regard  to  knowledge,  the  objective  method  is  the 
very  way  in  which  all  definite  ideas  of  the  outward 
world  are  obtained.  It  is  also  the  course  of  discovery. 
By  means  of  it  each  individual  learns  the  facts  of  the 
universe,  and  becomes  acquainted  with  the  laws  which 
control  all  phenomena.  Through  it  the  human  race 
gained  its  first  knowledge  of  Nature,  and  took  its  first 
steps  in  civilization. 

Spirit  of  Modern  Science. — The  great  revolution 
effected  by  Bacon  is  largely  attributable  to  the  ends 
which  he  proposed  as  the  proper  ones  for  all  scientific 


66  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

and  philosophic  investigation.  These  ends  consisted 
firsts  in  multij^lying  human  enjoyments  and  in  mitigat- 
ing human  suffering.  The  ancient  philosophy  which 
ruled  over  the  thoughts  of  men,  up  to  the  time  of  the 
great  inductive  philosopher,  "  disdained  to  be  useful, 
and  was  content  to  be  stationary."  Bacon  valued  knowl- 
edge in  the  direct  proportion  as  it  promoted  utility  and 
human  progress. 

The  change  in  the  ends  proposed  necessitated  a 
change  in  methods.  When  the  end  of  philosophy  was 
an  ideal  and  unattainable  exaltation  of  spirit  above  ma- 
terial needs  and  desires,  the  methods  pursued  were 
purely  speculative,  and  independent  of  the  facts  of  Na- 
ture or  consciousness.  When  the  end  was  the  promotion 
of  human  welfare,  then  these  facts  were  of  the  most  pro- 
found  significance,  and  nothing  could  be  considered  "  too 
insignificant  for  the  attention  of  the  wisest  which  is  not 
too  insignificant  to  give  pain  or  pleasure  to  the  meanest." 

From  this  change  in  the  ends  and  methods  of  thought 
and  investigation,  modern  science  had  its  birth,  and 
since  that  time  has  performed  its  wondrous  mission  of 
beneficence  to  humanity.  Its  progress,  however,  has 
been  marked  by  a  continuous  battle  with  the  inertia 
and  reactionary  forces  of  society — a  conflict  still  far 
from  being  ended. 

The  introduction  of  the  objective  course  into  schools 
is  but  the  recognition  in  education  of  the  ends  and  meth- 
ods which  have  proved  of  such  eminent  advantage  in 
science.  And  when  both  are  thoroughly  understood  and 
appreciated  by  our  teachers,  we  may  expect  a  result  as 
beneficent  as  that  already  effected  in  science,  and  one 
much  more  universal  in  its  application. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SUBJECTIVE   COURSE   OF  INSTRUCTION. 

The  Subjective  Method. — "When  all  the  facts  bear- 
ing upon  a  subject  have  been  acquired,  compared,  and 
classified,  according  to  the  objective  method  ;  and  when 
generalizations  have  been  made  resulting  in  laws  or 
definitions,  then  the  subject  has  become  a  possession  of 
the  mind,  and  needs  to  be  arranged  in  such  order  as  to 
be  most  easily  and  effectively  used.  At  this  point  the 
knowledge  under  consideration  becomes  the  basis  for 
the  subjective  course. 

This  knowledge  is  expressed  either  in  the  form  of  a 
law,  or  a  definition.  "When  expressed  as  a  law,  the  sub- 
jective course  consists  of  successive  applications  of  the 
law  to  new  departments  of  thought  and  research.  The 
results  of  these  applications  of  law  are  at  once  a  verifi- 
cation of  the  law  and  the  placing  of  phenomena  in  the 
order  of  dependence.  The  details  of  the  method  of 
applying  laws  to  the  investigation  of  science  and  phi- 
losophy embraces  the  whole  of  deductive  logic. 

Definition. — When  subjective  knowledge  starts  from 
a  definition,  the  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  definition 
itself.     The  essential  elements  of  a  true  definition  are 


G8  PRINCIPLES   AND  PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

simplicity  and  truth.  The  definition  must  be  expressed 
in  language  more  perspicuous  and  simple  than  the  word 
or  thing  to  be  defined ;  and  it  must  embrace  and  ex- 
press the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth. 

Examples  of  Definition. — Addition  is  Addition. 
This  is  not  a  real  definition,  because  the  word  to  be  de- 
fined is  used  in  the  definition — thus  producing  mere 
tautology. 

Addition  is  the  Process  of  Adding  two  or  more  Quan- 
tities. In  tins  case  the  word  defined  is  repeated  in  one 
of  its  forms,  and  nothing  simpler  or  more  easily  under- 
stood is  given.     This  is  called  "  defining  in  a  circle." 

Addition  is  the  Aggregation  of  the  Individualities 
that  Compose  an  Entity.  Here  the  words  employed 
are  more  difficult  of  comprehension  and  less  simple  and 
perspicuous  than  the  word  to  be  defined. 

Geography  is  a  Description  of  the  Moon.  This 
definition  is  at  fault  because  it  is  not  true. 

Geography  is  a  Description  of  Europe.  This 
definition  does  not  express  the  whole  truth. 

Geography  is  a  Description  of  the  Earth.  This 
definition  expresses  more  than  the  truth. 

In  all  subjective  work  the  importance  of  definition 
can  scarcely  be  over-estimated.  Every  definition,  before 
it  is  finally  accepted,  should  be  tested  by  the  principles 
already  illustrated. 

Division  of  a  /Subject. — The  second  step  in  the  sub- 
jective course  is  the  division  of  a  subject  into  distinct 
parts.  This  division  must  be  made  on  a  single  basis, 
and  the  several  parts  must  represent  real  differences. 

These  divisions  may  be  natural,  as  the  division  of 


SUBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  C9 

stars  into  fixed  stars  and  planets ;  or  they  may  be  artifi- 
cial and  conventional,  as  the  divisions  in  the  census- 
tables — separating  persons  by  their  ages  into  classes  em- 
bracing those  under  ten  years  and  those  over  ten  years 
of  age. 

Imperfect  Division. — Whenever  it  is  found,  on  a 
thorough  examination  of  each  of  the  parts,  that  they 
fail  to  exhaust  the  subject,  the  division  is  faulty,  be- 
cause the  parts  are  insufficient  in  number.  And  when 
the  parts  are  found  to  overlap  each  other,  and  partially 
to  treat  of  the  same  department  of  the  subject,  the  di- 
vision is  imperfect,  either  from  having  too  great  a  num- 
ber of  parts,  or  from  a  failure  to  observe  the  relations 
which  subsist  between  the  basis  and  the  parts. 

Subjective  Classification. — The  several  parts  into 
which  the  subject  is  divided  are  next  arranged  for  ex- 
amination in  the  order  of  their  dependence — the  part 
which  is  independent  receiving  the  first  attention,  the 
one  depending  on  the  first  coming  next  in  order,  and 
so  on.  This  division  of  a  subject  into  its  constituent 
parts  upon  a  single  basis,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  according  to  the  laws  of  dependence,  is  known  as 
subjective  classification. 

Illustration. — Take,  for  example,  grammar.  The 
subjective  treatment  would  call  first  for  a  definition 
which  would  exactly  limit  the  subject.  This  definition 
would,  of  course,  exclude  the  idea  that  the  purpose  of 
grammar  is  to  enable  us  to  speak  and  write  correctly, 
since  these  two  ends  are  eacli  an  art  which  can  only  be 
attained  by  practice.  Upon  the  basis  of  the  words 
that  compose  the  language,  grammar  is  divided  into  Or- 
thography, which  treats  of  the  formation  of  words;  Kty- 


70  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mology,  which  treats  of  the  classification  of  words ;  Syn- 
tax, which  treats  of  the  formation  of  sentences  out  of 
words ;  and  Prosody,  which  treats  of  the  classification 
of  sentences.  In  the  order  of  the  examination  of  these 
parts,  it  will  be  seen  that  words  must  be  formed  before 
they  can  be  classified ;  that  they  must  be  formed  and 
classified  before  they  can  be  made  into  sentences ;  and 
sentences  must  be  formed  before  they  can  be  classified. 
Hence,  Orthography  is  the  independent  term,  Etymol- 
ogy is  the  term  depending  upon  Orthography  alone,  Syn- 
tax the  term  depending  upon  Orthography  and  Ety- 
mology, and  Prosody  the  term  depending  upon  all  of 
the  preceding. 

Opposing  Theories :  —  A  controversy  has  arisen 
among  scientific  men  in  regard  to  the  classification  of 
natural  history :  one  party  insisting  that  the  divisions 
shall  be  grouped  around  types,  while  the  opposite  party 
is  equally  strenuous  that  all  divisions  shall  be  founded 
upon  definition.  From  the  analysis  here  made,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  classification  resulting  from  the  process 
of  discovery  is  objective,  and  almost  of  necessity  is 
based  on  types;  while  the  classification  which  comes 
from  a  more  extended  knowledge,  viewed  as  a  whole,  is 
subjective,  and  is  based  upon  definitions. 

Scientific  View. — Huxley  says  :  "  So  long  as  our  in- 
formation concerning  them  is  imperfect,  we  class  objects 
together  according  to  resemblances  which  we  feel  but 
cannot  define  ;  we  group  them  around  types,  in  short. 
Thus,  if  you  ask  an  ordinary  person  what  kinds  of  ani- 
mals there  are,  he  will  probably  say :  Beasts,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, fishes,  and  insects.  Ask  him  to  define  a  beast  from 
a  reptile,  and  he  cannot  do  it ;  but  he  says :  '  Things 


SUBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  71 

like  a  cow  or  a  horse  are  beasts,  and  things  like  a  frog 
or  lizard  are  reptiles.'  You  see,  he  does  class  by  type, 
and  not  by  definition.  But  how  does  this  classification 
differ  from  that  of  the  scientific  zoologist  ?  How  does 
the  meaning  of  the  scientific  class-name  of  'mammalia' 
differ  from  the  unscientific  name  of  beasts  f  Why,  ex- 
actly because  the  former  depends  on  a  definition,  and 
the  latter  on  a  type.  The  class  mammalia  is  scientifically 
defined  as  '  all  vertebrated  animals  that  suckle  their 
young.'  Here  is  no  reference  to  type,  but  a  definition 
rigorous  enough  for  a  geometrician ;  and  such  is  the 
character  which  every  scientific  naturalist  recognizes  as 
that  to  which  his  classes  must  aspire — knowing,  as  he 
does,  that  classification  by  type  is  simply  an  acknowl- 
edgment of  ignorance  and  a  temporary  device." 

Definition  of  Divisions. — The  third  step  in  the  sub- 
jective course  is  the  treatment  of  the  several  parts  as 
though  each  were  a  new  subject.  These  parts  are  to  be 
taken  in  the  order  of  their  arrangement,  and  each  one 
defined — the  definition  to  conform  to  the  standard  al- 
ready described.  The  name  given  to  each  part,  as  far 
as  possible,  should  indicate  the  basis  upon  which  the  di- 
vision is  made. 

Sub-divisions. — The  fourth  step  is  the  separation  of 
the  divisions  or  sub-divisions,  following  the  same  law  and 
the  same  order  as  the  first  general  divisions  of  the  sub' 
ject.  These  steps  of  successive  definition  and  division  fol- 
low each  other  alternately  until  the  ultimate  facts,  which 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  subject,  are  reached. 

Characteristics  of  the  Subjective  Coubsx. — This 
process  of  commencing  with  the  knowledge  of  a  subject, 


72  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

expressed  as  a  definition,  and  ending  in  ultimate  facts, 
is  secondary,  because  it  comes  after  the  primary  course  ; 
it  is  subjective,  because  it  begins  with  the  subject 
already  in  the  mind ;  it  is  analytic,  because  it  takes 
apart ;  and  it  is  deductive,  because  it  leads  from  a  law 
or  definition. 

Relations  to  Development. — In  regard  to  mental 
development,  the  subjective  course  contributes  mainly 
to  mental  strength,  and  through  it  alone  can  such  strength 
be  obtained.  The  effect  of  the  subjective  treatment 
upon  the  mind  is  analogous  to  the  effect  of  muscular 
exercise  upon  the  body.  While  to  some  extent  this 
process  may  contribute  to  growth,  its  principal  effect 
lies  in  the  increase  of  power. 

Relations  to  Knowledge. — In  regard  to  knowledge, 
the  subjective  course  points  out  the  way  in  which 
knowledge  may  be  used.  It  is  the  course  of  application. 
By  means  of  it  each  individual  learns  to  bring  phenom- 
ena under  the  domain  of  law,  and  to  see  in  all  phenom- 
ena the  evidence  of  law.  Through  it  the  race  turns 
knowledge  to  profitable  account,  and  makes  it  con- 
tribute to  the  promotion  of  human  welfare. 

Place  in  an  Educational  Course. — The  subjective 
course  rounds  out  and  completes  education.  It  points 
out  the  way  in  which  objective  knowledge  can  be  ren- 
dered practically  useful.  With  a  broad  foundation  of 
facts  observed  and  laws  discovered,  this  course  coordi- 
nates them  all,  opening  the  way  for  new  investigation 
in  higher  fields  of  thought,  and  becoming  emphatically 
the  course  of  wisdom.  Keeping  in  view  that  the  end 
to  be  attained  is  human  welfare,  it  converts  all  knowl- 
edge into  philosophical  agencies,  and  regards  knowledge 


SUBJECTIVE  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  73 

as  valuable  in  proportion  as  it  can  be  made  to  conduce 
to  this  end. 

Jlisuse  of  the  Subjective  Method. — By  attempting 
to  use  subjective  methods  without  a  sufficient  objective 
foundation,  human  thought  has  been  led  into  unreal 
and  fanciful  speculations,  which  have  often  been  dig- 
nified by  the  name  of  philosophy.  The  processes  of 
thought  growing  upon  these  narrow  liases  require  the 
same  expenditure  of  vital  force  as  those  built  upon 
broader  foundations,  but  they  lack  fruit.  To  use  the 
expressive  language  of  Macaulay:  "A  pedestrian  may 
show  as  much  vigor  on  a  tread-mill  as  on  a  highway  ; 
but,  on  the  road  the  vigor  will  assuredly  carry  him 
forward,  and  on  the  tread-mill  he  will  not  advance  an 
inch.  Many  of  the  old  philosophies  were  tread-mills, 
not  paths.  They  were  made  up  of  controversies  which 
were  always  beginning  again.  They  were  contrivances 
for  having  much  exertion  and  no  progress.  During 
the  time  of  their  continuance  the  human  race  ac- 
cordingly, instead  of  marching,  merely  marked  time. 
Words,  and  mere  words,  and  nothing  but  words,  had 
been  the  fruit  of  all  the  toil  of  all  the  mo.-t  renowned 
sages  of  sixty  generations." 

By  enlarging  the  basis  of  thought,  the  same  vigor  in 
thinking  has  produced  all  these  modern  improvements 
which  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  welfare  of  the 
race.  This  enlarged  thought  is  shown  in  the  mental 
and  moral  spheres,  as  well  as  in  the  sphere  of  physical 
action;  and  now  the  question  which  is  most  frequently 
asked  by  philosophers  is:  "  How  will  this  thought  affect 
the  condition  of  men  ?"  The  old  fruitless  philosophies, 
with  their  narrow  formalisms  and  unattainable  ends, 
4 


74  PRINCIPLES  AND   PPtACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

became  firmly  intrenched  in  the  schools,  where  they 
have  had  supreme  control  until  within  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  Missing  the  great  ends  of  education, 
these  schools  have  often  borne  fruit  of  words  only.  The 
faults  of  the  systems  were  precisely  the  faults  of  the 
philosophies  upon  which  they  were  founded,  and  the 
remedy  for  these  faults  is  to  be  found  in  a  generous 
objective  course  to  precede  all  efforts  at  subjective 
reasoning. 

The  Objective  and  Subjective  Courses  Com- 
bined.— From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  will  be  seen 
that  to  a  complete  education,  both  the  objective  and 
subjective  courses  are  indispensable,  and  therefore 
neither  can  be  considered  of  more  importance  than  the 
other.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  in  regard  to  time  the 
relative  place  of  each  has  been  determined  by  its  very 
nature. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  any  given  subject 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  whole  of  the  objective  course 
be  completed  before  the  subjective  is  begun.  Every 
part  of  the  objective  work  may  be  separately  put  into 
subjective  forms. 

Example. — In  the  study  of  arithmetic,  the  pupil  may 
be  taught  how  to  put  numbers  together  so  that  the  result 
shall  be  the  same  in  value  as  the  numbers  first  taken. 
He  may  derive  his  first  knowledge  of  this  process  from 
objects ;  then,  he  may  use  concrete  numbers  when  the 
objects  are  not  present ;  and  finally,  he  may  be  led  to 
use  abstract  numbers.  When  the  mental  process  has 
been  mastered,  he  may  be  taught  the  value  of  figures ; 
the  method  of  expressing  numbers  by  figures  ;  the  man- 


SUBJECTIVE  COURSE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  75 

ner  of  arranging  figures  for  adding ;  the  convenient 
method  of  adding  the  numbers  represented  by  the  in- 
dividual figures  so  as  to  produce  the  correct  result ;  the 
means  of  expressing  this  result,  and  the  manner  of  ver- 
ifying it.  lie  may  then  be  led  to  describe  the  process 
he  has  gone  through,  and  this  description  becomes  the 
rule  for  future  use.  Then  he  learns  that  the  whole 
work  which  he  has  done  is  addition.  A  brief  Bynopsia 
of  this  work,  which  he  thoroughly  understands,  is  a  defi- 
nition. This  work  is  objective.  It  begins  with  the 
facts,  and  proceeds  through  a  series  of  comparisons  and 
generalizations  until  the  definition  is  at  last  reached. 

The  subjective  course  can  now  be  brought  into  oper- 
ation. The  definition  is  formally  and  accurately  stated, 
and  the  subject  is  divided  into  its  several  departments 
of  methods  of  writing  the  numbers,  operations,  rule, 
proof.  Each  of  these  is,  in  turn,  divided  until  the 
facts  of  addition  are  reached.  "What  is  true  of  addition 
is  true  of  each  one  of  the  divisions  of  arithmetic  ;  after 
the  objective  development,  each  may  be  stated  in  sub- 
jective forms.  When  arithmetic  in  all  its  forms  has 
been  examined  in  this  manner,  it  may  be  treated  sub- 
jectively as  a  whole  and  the  relations  of  the  various 
pa  its  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole  maybe  ascertained. 

The  True  Course  as  Related  to  Discovery  "ml  Ap- 
plication.— The  objective  course  dealing  with  objects 
and  minutise  reaches  laws  and  principles,  by  occupying 
a  con  ipara  lively  narrow  field  of  investigation.  The  sub- 
jective course,  by  applying  the  principles  discovered 
to  every  possible  case,  widens  (his  field,  and  in  this  way 
enlarges  the  conceptions  which  follow  investigation. 

The  objective  course  furnishes  the  materials  indis- 


76  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACIIING. 

pensable  to  sound  thinldng  and  correct  conclusions. 
The  subjective  appropriates  these  materials  and  conclu- 
sions, and  applies  them  to  specific  ends. 

The  objective  course  busies  itself  with  finding  out 
what  are  the  facts  in  the  case,  and  what  these  facts  sig- 
nify. The  subjective  employs  itself  in  arranging  the 
facts  in  order,  and  in  devoting  them  to  such  uses  as  will 
most  effectually  serve  humanity. 

The  Two  Courses  as  Belated  to  the  Teacher's  Work. — 
In  this  work  the  objective  course  is  necessary  in  de- 
veloping the  perceptive  powers;  in  cultivating  habits 
of  close  attention  on  the  part  of  pupils ;  in  showing  the 
way  in  which  laws  may  be  discovered,  and  in  pointing 
out  the  method  in  which  the  mind  must  act  to  reach 
just  conclusions  in  any  field  of  research  or  investigation. 

The  subjective  course  is  valuable  to  the  teacher  for 
arranging  knowledge  and  placing  it  in  its  order  of  de- 
pendence. This  arrangement  enables  him  to  determine 
the  successive  steps  necessary  in  both  the  objective  and 
subjective  methods  of  presentation ;  and  further  enables 
him  to  make  the  most  effective  application  of  knowl- 
edge to  human  affairs. 

By  the  application  of  subjective  principles,  both 
teacher  and  pupils  are  enabled  to  become  intelligent  in 
regard  to  the  results  of  investigations  which  they  have  not 
made  objectively.  To  make  this  latter  result  possible, 
however,  two  things  are  necessary :  First,  that  the  prin- 
ciple itself  shall  be  obtained  by  a  strictly  objective  pro- 
cess ;  and  secondly,  that  the  new  investigation  shall  be 
similar  to  the  one  already  accomplished,  and  one  to 
which  the  principle  fully  applies. 

Example. — In  the  study  of  physics,  by  observation 


SUBJECTIVE   COURSE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  77 

and  experiment,  we  may  find  that  water  presses  equally 
in  all  directions,  and  that  the  pressure  is  in  direct  ratio 
to  its  depth.  We  may  now  infer  that  other  fluids  like 
water  will  be  subject  to  the  same  laws,  and  we  do  not 
need  to  make  experiments  with  each  one.  When  we 
find  it  stated  that  gaseous  fluids  are  subject  to  similar 
laws,  we  accept  the  statement,  although  we  have  made 
no  experiments  upon  these  fluids.  By  the  study  of 
the  facts  in  the  first  instance  we  derived  the  law ;  and 
henceforth,  whenever  we  find  an  application  of  this 
law  in  a  new  direction,  we  fully  understand  the  matter, 
and  do  not  require  that  the  demonstration  shall  be 
made  in  each  specific  instance. 

Erroiys  of  Reversing  the  Two  Course*. — A  law  as- 
sumed or  taken  on  trust,  without  any  knowledge  of  the 
process  by  which  it  was  obtained,  is  of  comparatively 
little  worth  in  mental  development.  The  enunciation 
of  the  law  is  often  a  mere  formula  of  words  which 
conveys  no  information  to  the  mind.  For  example, 
many  pupils  hare  learned  that  the  attraction  of  bodies 
is  directly  as  the  matter  they  contained,  and  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance,  without  in  the  least  com- 
prehending the  nature  or  the  magnitude  of  the  law  con- 
tained in  the  formula  which  they  have  memorized. 

By  a  series  of  mathematical  steps,  it  is  easy  to  dem- 
onstrate to  a  pupil  that  "in  similar  figures  the  homolo- 
gous sides  are  proportional;"  but  to  have  this  proposi- 
tion simply  Learned  would  not  be  of  the  slightest  value 
to  the  student  in  geometry.  So  in  astronomy  :  by  care- 
ful study  of  the  facts  concerning  the  solar  system,  we 
can  understand  "  that  the  planets  in  their  motions  around 
the  sun  pass  over  equal  spaces  in  equal  times;"  but  this 


78  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

formula,  which  is  the  expression  of  an  important  law 
when  understood,  is  simply  verbal  lumber  when  not  un- 
derstood. 

Corollaries. — From  the  laws  unfolded  in  the  two 
preceding  chapters,  several  corollaries  can  be  drawn, 
which  may  be  taken  as  principles  both  in  arranging 
courses  of  study  and  in  devising  methods  of  instruction. 

Sources  of  Primary  Ideas. — The  first  of  the  corol- 
laries is,  that  all  primary  ideas  of  the  outward  world 
must  come  through  the  senses.  This  principle  will  lead 
to  the  careful  and  thorough  training  of  each  of  the 
senses,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  observation  and  percep- 
tion. It  will  base  all  knowledge  on  personal  experi- 
ence, and  avoid  the  absurd  practice  of  endeavoring  to 
make  one  sense  do  the  work  of  another,  and  of  present- 
ing ideas  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  child. 

Training  the  Senses. — The  second  corollary  is  :  The 
senses  should  be  trained  and  made  acute  by  systematic 
object-teaching . 

This  principle  is  derived  from  the  general  discussion 
of  the  subject,  and  may  be  inferred  directly  from  the 
last  corollary.  As  our  knowledge  must  needs  come 
through  the  avenues  of  sense,  then  it  follows  that  one  of 
the  most  important  factors  of  intelligence  is  acuteness 
of  sense.  The  senses  that  most  enter  into  intellectual 
processes  are  sight  and  hearing,  and  in  no  way  can  they 
be  trained  to  great  sensibility,  except  by  means  of  sights 
and  sounds  which  appeal  directly  to  them  ;  and  these 
sights  and  sounds  come  from  objects.  Only  to  a  very 
limited  extent  do  our  present  school-exercises  contrib- 
ute to  this  accurate  training  of  the  senses. 


SUBJECTIVE   COURSE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  79 

Securing  Attention. — Third  corollary.  Attention 
is  lest  secured  by  proper  and  related  object-lessons. 

A  child  is  always  more  interested  in  something  that 
appeals  to  his  senses  than  in  abstract  matters.  By  adapt- 
ing the  lessons  to  the  capacity  of  the  child  and  by  ap- 
pealing to  his  curiosity,  the  teacher  can  always  succeed 
in  getting  attention.  In  the  process  of  growth  the 
mind  becomes  interested  in  more  abstract  matters,  and 
the  object-lessons  may  be  gradually  omitted. 

Cultivating  Perceptions. — Fourth  corollary.  Per- 
ceptive knowledge  should  be  mad'  the  basis  of  jprimary 
i 'a. xt ruction. 

rJ  nis  follows  from  the  fact  that  the  pe  rccptivepowcrs 
are  relatively  most  active  in  childhood,  and  hence  there 
is  a  craving  for  perceptive  food.  It  equally  follows  from 
the  fact  that  sucli  knowledge  is  needed  for  the  next 
step  in  mental  growth,  and  that  a  failure  to  improve  the 
season  and  opportunity  is  fatal  to  the  highest  improve- 
ment. 

Exercises  in  Memory. — Fifth  corollary.  Memory 
ia  1>I  si  cultivated  by  forcible,  rept  at<  </,  and  r>  l of,  d  per- 
ceptions and  ideas. 

This  follows  from  the  general  fact  that  the  deepest 
impression  is  retained  the  longest,  and  it  shows  that  the 
faculties  are  so  related  that,  in  the  primary  stages,  that 
course  of  training  which  is  best  for  one  is  best  for  all. 
It  also  effectually  disposes  of  the  nonsense  that  rote- 
teaching  should  lie  practised  because  it  "  strengthens  the 
memory." 

Advanced  Instruction. — Sixth  corollary.  Subjects 
appealing  mainly  to  the  reason  and  judgment  belong  to 
the  advanced  course  of  instruction. 


80  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

This  principle  is  so  obvious,  that  there  would  be  no 
necessity  of  stating  it  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  it  is 
so  often  violated  in  practice.  Many  studies  are  ad- 
mitted in  the  primary-school  course  which  have  noplace 
there,  and  little  children  are  given  tasks  which  would 
tax  the  ability  of  mature  minds.  The  result  is,  that 
teaching  must  of  necessity  become  mechanical,  because 
the  logical  formulas  are  simply  understood  as  sounds, 
and  not  as  ideas. 

Ideas  and  Words.  —  Seventh  Corollary.  Ideas 
should  precede  words. 

This  principle  follows  from  the  nature  of  language, 
and  the  relations  of  language  to  thought.  While  the 
statement  is  all  that  is  needed  to  establish  its  truth,  a 
more  detailed  explanation  is  necessary  to  show  its  appli- 
cation in  certain  cases.  The  principle  includes  the  fol- 
lowing minor  statements  :  Objects  should  precede  names  / 
thoughts  should  precede  sentences/  knowledge  should 
•precede  definitions. 

This  last  proposition,  besides  being  included  in  the 
general  principle,  may  be  directly  inferred  from  the  laws 
of  mental  development,  and  from  the  nature  of  the  ob- 
jective course. 

By  reversing  this  process,  and  giving  definitions  or 
attempting  to  give  them  before  the  thing  defined  is  well 
understood,  several  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
teaching  are  violated,  time  and  effort  are  wasted,  and 
the  powers  of  the  mind  are  permanently  injured  by  a 
most  unnatural  process. 

The  Steps  of  Instruction. — Eighth  corollary.  In- 
struction should  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known.    This  truth  also  shows  that  the  attainment  of 


SUBJECTIVE    COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  81 

all  knowledge  should  have  a  basis  in  personal  experience. 
By  directing  the  observing  powers  to  the  objects  and 
phenomena  nearest  at  hand,  the  mind  becomes  possessed 
of  real  knowledge ;  and  from  this  sure  basis  of  home 
knowledge  it  gradually  extends  outward  toward  the  un- 
known. Each  item  of  the  unknown  is  converted  into 
the  known,  and  each  step  taken  is  a  firm  step  in  advance. 

This  principle  includes  the  following  elements  :  In- 
struction should  proceed  from  the  concrete  to  the  ah- 
atraot  •  from  the  simple  to  the  complex;  and  from 
facts  to  principles.  In  examining  a  single  object,  in- 
struction may  go  from  the  general  to  the  particular,  but 
with  a  number  of  objects  it  passes  from  the  particular 
to  the  general. 

Exercise. — The  ninth  corollary  is:  Exercise  should 
he  left  to  the  pupil.  The  race,  in  its  education,  was 
obliged  to  gain  knowledge  by  experiences  which  nearly 
as  often  retarded  as  promoted  direct  development.  The 
teacher's  work  should  prevent  these  obstacles,  and  should 
so  direct  the  pupil  in  the  use  of  his  own  powers  that  the 
greatest  progress  may  be  made  with  the  least  waste.  In 
the  exercise  of  this  directive  power  the  teacher  must 
avoid  the  very  prevalent  fault  of  telling  too  much,  and 
by  so  doing  of  depriving  the  pupil  of  an  opportunity 
for  that  mental  exercise  which  is  indispensable  to  his 
highest  good. 

To  the  end  that  the  pupil  shall  receive  the  highest 
benefit,  the  teacher  must  always  carefully  select  the  ma- 
terials to  be  used,  and  so  arrange  the  conditions  that 
with  ordinary  observation  the  pupil  will  discover  the 
desired  truth.  This  end  can  be  defeated  either  by  ren- 
dering the  process  too  obscure  for  the  mental  vision  of 


82  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

the  pupil,  or  by  injudicious  haste  in  verbal  explanation. 
When  the  teacher  has  so  excited  the  curiosity  of  the 
pupil  that  he  is  led  to  inquire,  the  desired  end  is  more 
than  half  attained. 

Completed  Processes. — Tenth  corollary.  Each  pro- 
cess of  instruction  should  include  full  perception,  dis- 
tinct understanding,  clear  expression,  and,  where  pos- 
sible, the  passing  of  thought  into  act. 

In  much  of  school- work  the  processes  stop  at  one  or 
the  other  of  these  steps,  few  being  carried  to  the  final  con- 
summation. Some — as  rote-lessons — never  reach  per- 
ceptions, but  are  reflected  back  from  this  sensorium  in  au- 
tomatic action ;  some — as  most  of  the  lessons  in  primary 
grammar — fail  to  reach  the  understanding,  but  remain 
as  vague  perceptions.  In  very  few  schools  is  the  prac- 
tice of  clear  expression  enforced  at  all  times  ;  and  yet, 
from  the  necessity  of  forcible  impressions,  and  from  the 
relations  of  thought  to  the  language,  expression  is  seen 
to  be  an  important  factor  in  both  the  reception  and  the 
retention  of  knowledge,  and  in  clear  understanding. 

The  last  step,  the  passing  of  thought  into  act,  is  now 
scarcely  thought  of  in  any  schools  except  in  the  kinder- 
gartens and  the  schools  of  technology ;  still,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  step  is  necessary  to  the  full  perception  and 
distinct  understanding  of  many  subjects ;  to  the  physi- 
cal training  that  coordinates  study  and  work  ;  and  to  the 
application  of  ideas  and  thought  to  common  affairs  and 
duties. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

OBJECT-TEA  CUING. 

General  View  of  tiie  Subject. — Primary  teaching, 
until  within  a  comparatively  recent  period,  lias  consisted 
chiefly  of  mere  rote  and  routine  work.  The  experi- 
ence of  the  pupil  before  he  entered  school  was  made  of 
little  or  no  real  value  in  the  distinctive  exercises  of  the 
school.  From  the  observation  of  things  with  which  he 
was  partially  familiar,  and  in  which  he  took  an  interest, 
his  attention  was  forcibly  turned  to  the  consideration  of 
the  arbitrary  characters  which  make  up  the  alphabet. 
School-work  was  considered  as  not  only  having  no  par- 
ticular relation  to  previous  experience,  but  as  something 
directly  opposed  to  it. 

False  Philosophy. — The  philosophy  somehow  ob- 
tained that,  the  more  difficult  an  exercise  was  made, 
and  the  more  it  differed  from  ordinary  occupations  and 
thoughts,  the  greater  was  its  value  as  a  mental  exercise. 
In  consequence,  the  school-lessons  were  little  more  than 
memorizing  exercises,  and  the  schoolroom  became  a 
very  hateful  place  to  the  majority  of  children. 

Introduction  of  OI>ject-Lessons.—  \\'\\\\v  these  me- 
chanical  and   unnatural   methods   Were   in    practice,  ub- 


84  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

ject-lessons  were  introduced.  The  decided  superiority 
of  the  new  method  over  the  old,  in  arousing  attention 
and  in  exciting  interest,  was  soon  manifest.  The  new 
instruction  appealed  to  experience,  and  excited  the  ob- 
serving powers  to  intense  activity.  It  fed  the  mind 
upon  real  knowledge,  and  raised  it  out  of  the  slough  of 
inattention  and  listless  inactivity  produced  by  the  old 
process  of  mere  routine. 

Abuse  of  Object-Lessons. — These  substantial  results 
gained  for  the  new  system  extensive  notoriety,  and  led 
to  an  excessive  estimation  of  its  value.  Object-lessons 
were  found  excellent  in  certain  grades  and  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  and  it  was  therefore  assumed  that 
they  would  prove  as  good  for  all  grades  and  under  all 
circumstances.  Experiments  on  a  large  scale  were  at 
once  entered  upon,  in  which  object-lessons  were  made 
to  take  the  place  of  nearly  every  other  kind  of  study. 
Since  it  was  found  that  the  primary  knowledge  of  the 
outward  world  could  be  best  obtained  through  lessons 
in  which  the  object  was  present,  it  was  concluded  that 
advanced  knowledge  could  best  be  obtained  in  the  same 
manner.  Hence  there  grew  up  an  undue  estimation  of 
personal  experience,  and  an  unwarranted  depreciation 
of  the  experience  of  others  as  found  recorded  in  books. 
The  protest  against  the  study  of  books  was  carried  to 
an  extreme,  and  the  new  method  became  nearly  as  one- 
sided as  the  old. 

Practical  Mistakes. — Mistakes  were  also  frequently 
made  in  the  methods  of  applying  object-teaching.  Pu- 
pils were  often  required  to  obtain  from  objects  ideas 
with  which  they  were  already  familiar — making  their 
tasks  of  no  more  interest  than  the  old  routine  of  the 


OBJECT-TEACHING.  85 

books.  Facts  were  communicated  by  the  teacher  which 
the  pupils  could  readily  discover  for  themselves.  The 
lessons  assigned,  instead  of  being  in  a  connected  scries, 
were  often  so  isolated  and  fragmentary  that  no  relations 
could  be  discovered  between  them,  and  much  of  their 
real  value,  therefore,  was  lost. 

Reaction  against  Object- Teaching. — These  faults  of 
over-valuation,  and  of  methods  of  application,  caused 
many  teachers  to  look  with  distrust  upon  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  object-teaching.  The  real  results  in  many  cases 
falling  so  far  short  of  what  was  generally  expected,  led 
to  a  reaction,  in  which  the  whole  system  of  object-les- 
sons was  declared  a  failure.  As  usual  in  such  cases, 
the  truth  seems  to  lie  between  these  extremes. 

Real  Nature  of  Object-Lessons. — In  a  preceding 
chapter,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  first  ideas  of  the 
outward  world  must  come  from  objects  and  through  the 
senses.  This  necessary  and  indeed  indispensable  pro- 
cess, which  occupies  the  attention  during  a  large  share 
of  the  earlier  years  of  life,  is  object-teaching.  When  a 
similar  process  is  introduced  into  school,  and  the  quali- 
ties of  objects  become  known  from  the  examination  of 
the  objects  themselves,  the  performance  is  an  object- 
lesson. 

Value  of  Object-Lessons. — By  systematizing  ob- 
ject-lessons, the  observing  powers  are  cultivated  and 
trained,  qualities  of  objects  become  known  thai  were 
unnoticed  before,  the  mind  is  filled  with  that  knowledge 
which  is  essential  to  advanced  thought,  and  a  much 
wiiler  basis  is  given  to  culture  than  is  usual  in  sehool- 
wurk. 

Qualities  of  Objects. — The  forms  of  objects   and 


86  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

ideas,  in  regard  to  differences  of  form,  are  readily  un- 
derstood by  the  examination  of  objects.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  impressing  these  ideas  of  form,  every  school 
should  be  supplied  with  a  variety  of  the  regular  plane 
and  solid  figures,  so  that  children  may  become  familiar 
with  them  at  a  very  early  period.  The  different  colors, 
with  their  varieties  of  hues,  tints,  and  shades,  can  be  best 
known  by  examining  objects  which  represent  these 
colors ;  and  the  only  way  to  train  the  senses  to  a  nice 
appreciation  of  color  is  through  this  examination,  which 
is  an  object-lesson.  The  mind  is  best  trained  to  under- 
stand ideas  of  position,  size,  and  number  in  a  similar 
manner. 

The  Physical  Sciences. — The  first  steps  in  every  sci- 
ence are  those  which  make  us  acquainted  with  the  facts 
upon  which  it  is  based.  In  all  the  physical  sciences, 
the  primary  facts  are  obtained  from  the  observation  of 
objects.  This  is  object-teaching.  Without  this  observa- 
tion, and  the  facts  which  result  from  it,  correct  inference 
is  impossible,  and  science  can  never  advance  beyond  its 
rudimentary  state. 

Illustrative  Examples. — In  mineralogy  and  geology, 
which  treat  of  the  inorganic  world,  the  first  step  is  to 
carefully  examine  specimens  of  the  principal  rocks  which 
compose  the  crust  of  the  earth.  By  this  examination, 
we  become  acquainted  with  the  structure  and  qualities 
of  each  specimen,  and  the  differences  between  them. 
This  knowledge  is  at  once  fundamental  and  necessary, 
and  each  exercise  in  school  designed  to  give  a  pupil  this 
knowledge  constitutes  an  object-lesson. 

In  botany  and  zoology,  the  same  principle  holds  true. 
In  these  cases,  plants  and  animals  respectively  must  be 


OBJECT-TEACHING.  87 

subjected  to  careful  examination,  and  their  peculiarities 
of  structure  and  parts  noted.  This  investigation  is  pre- 
liminary to  any  clearly-defined  knowledge  of  them.  No 
speculations,  however  profound,  can  be  substituted  for 
these  elementary  facts,  which  can  only  be  obtained 
through  the  process  of  object-teaching.  Physics,  chem- 
istry, and  indeed  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  will 
afford  additional  illustrations  of  this  truth. 

"How  not  to  do  it." — In  endeavoring  to  teach  sci- 
ence, a  method  has  extensively  prevailed  which  admira- 
bly illustrates  the  process  of  how  not  to  do  it.  The 
student  is  referred  to  a  book,  instead  of  to  natural 
objects,  to  procure  his  preliminary  ideas  in  regard  to 
the  subject.  He  is  required  to  accept  authority,  in  the 
place  of  making  personal  investigation.  lie  learns  a 
formula  of  words,  which  is  said  to  be  a  law,  or  rule, 
or  definition,  when  he  is  utterly  ignorant  of  the  fads 
upon  which  the  law,  or  rule,  is  based,  and  of  the  knowl- 
edge embodied  in  the  definition.  The  whole  perform- 
ance is  a  substitution  of  apparent  for  real  knowledge, 
and,  whether  resulting  from  ignorance  or  design,  is  a 
practical  fraud,  by  which  not  only  arc  time  and  labor 
lost,  but  the  mind  becomes  so  deteriorated  as  to  be  un- 
able to  distinguish  between  the  spurious  and  the  real, 
the  false  and  the  true. 

Ideal  Ohjects. — In  its  enlarged  sense,  the  term  <<hj,  ,-t 
means  anything  to  which  thought  is  or  maybe  directed. 
It  is  not  necessarily  confined  to  things  which  manifesl 
themselves  through  the  senses.  The  mind  may  consider 
a  physical  object,  like  an  apple,  a  physical  qualify,  like 
color,  a  mental  process,  like  perception,  <>r  a  moral 
power,  like  conscience ;  and  in  each  instance,  that  upon 


88  PRINCIPLES  AND    PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

which  the  mind  is  employed  is  an  object.  Whether  the 
object  is  real,  like  an  apple,  or  ideal,  as  a  mental  power 
or  fact,  the  mind  must  become  acquainted  with  all  its 
qualities,  characteristics,  and  relations ;  and  the  process 
of  obtaining  this  knowledge  is  object-teaching.  In  this 
sense,  object-teaching  is  the  necessary  foundation  of 
every  department  of  thought. 

Order  in  Thinking. — To  ascertain  laws,  to  discover 
truth,  and  to  promote  human  welfare,  the  mental  pro- 
cesses must  proceed  in  some  sort  of  definite  order.  As 
the  materials  of  thought  are  primarily  derived  from  the 
observation  of  external  objects,  so  the  order  of  thought 
springs  from  the  observation  of  the  sequence,  causation, 
and  dependence  of  objects  and  phenomena  in  the  out- 
ward world.  These  ideas,  essential  to  logic  and  all  con- 
nected thought,  are  most  forcibly  presented,  and  make 
the  deepest  impression  on  the  mind,  by  systematic  ob- 
ject-lessons, in  which  relations,  as  well  as  qualities,  are 
presented. 

The  Ideal  and  the  Real. — Descartes,  in  his  philoso- 
phy, shows  that  the  only  reality  of  which  we  are  abso- 
lutely certain  is  that  we  think.  Through  our  senses  we 
observe  objects,  and  we  ascribe  to  these  objects  real  ex- 
istence ;  but  of  this  reality  we  cannot  be  perfectly  sure, 
for  our  senses  may  deceive  us,  and  that  which  we  think 
exists  may  be  only  an  appearance.  In  the  shimmer  of 
the  light  over  the  parched  sands  of  the  desert,  the 
thirsty  traveler  sees  water,  to  all  appearance  as  real  as 
the  little  lakes  that  lie  among  the  hills  of  more  favored 
regions.  It  is  an  appearance,  however,  that  mocks  the 
sight ;  and  the  only  real  thing  to  the  traveler  is  that  he 
thinks  he  sees  the  water. 


OBJECT-TEACHING.  89 

The  next  position  taken  by  the  philosopher  is  that 
the  materials  and  order  of  thought  are  furnished  by  the 
outward  world.  In  our  daily  experience  we  observe  the 
sequences  of  Nature.  Night  follows  day ;  the  sun  unfail- 
ingly appears  to  pursue  his  course  through  the  heavens  ; 
vernal  flowers  succeed  winter  snows ;  all  vegetable  life 
has  an  orderly  course  from  germ  to  maturity,  and  from 
maturity  to  decay;  animals  have  their  birth,  their 
growth,  and  their  decrepitude,  and  everywhere  is  or- 
derly sequence.  This  observation  leads  the  mind  to 
ascribe  order  to  every  kind  of  phenomena,  and  develops 
in  it  the  logical  faculty. 

These  positions  show  the  ground  for  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  apparently  antagonistic  ideal  and  real  schools 
of  philosophy,  and  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  guide  to 
educational  processes.  The  materials  of  thought  must 
come  from  the  outward  world.  The  more  we  study 
natural  phenomena,  and  rise  to  a  comprehension  of  the 
laws  that  control  them,  the  more  thoroughly  is  our  logi- 
cal faculty  developed,  and  the  better  arc  we  prepared  to 
perform  the  duties  of  life. 

Interest  m  Study  is  greatly  increased  by  well-ar- 
ranged object-lessons.  The  impression  upon  the  mind, 
made  directly  through  the  senses,  is  much  more  vivid 
and  lasting  than  when  made  indirectly  through  words. 
When  the  object  is  present,  an  appeal  is  made  to  several 
of  the  senses,  and  thus  deepens  the  impression  desired 
and  makes  it  easier  of  retention.  By  this  means,  also, 
vague  and  crude  impressions  are  changed  into  clear  and 
definite  conceptions,  and  the  field  of  experience  is  ex 
tended  on  every  side. 

Verification  of  a  Law. — A  law  which  has  been  dis- 


90  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

covered  inductively  may  need  verification,  or,  as  in  the 
subjective  course,  it  may  become  necessary  to  apply  it 
to  a  great  variety  of  new  circumstances.  In  either  case 
there  must  result  an  examination  which  will  reach  down 
to  the  ultimate  facts,  and  this  will  involve  object-lessons. 

Examples. — In  observing  a  common  balance,  we  find 
that  the  arms  are  of  equal  length,  and  that  equal  weights 
balance  each  other.  By  experiment  we  find  that,  if  one 
ami  is  decreased,  the  weight  must  be  increased  to  bal- 
ance the  weight  upon  the  other  side.  From  these  ob- 
servations we  may  infer  that,  to  produce  an  equilibrium, 
the  product  of  the  weight,  multiplied  by  the  length  of 
the  arm,  must  be  equal.  This  generalization  from  the 
observed  facts  needs  additional  verification  before  it  can 
be  accepted  as  a  law.  Will  it  be  true  of  all  lengths  of 
the  arms  ?  Is  it  true  of  bent  as  well  as  straight  arms  ? 
Is  it  true  of  compound  as  of  simple  arms  ?  To  answer 
these  questions  and  others  of  the  same  sort,  and  before 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  inference  made  is  a  general 
law,  experiments  must  be  made  with  objects  to  verify 
the  generalization  in  every  case ;  and  when  the  verifica- 
tion has  covered  the  ground  of  all  supposable  condi- 
tions, it  is  accepted  as  a  law. 

Leverrier,  noticing  the  perturbations  of  Uranus,  from 
the  established  laws  of  gravitation  inferred  that  its  mo- 
tions were  affected  by  a  hitherto  undiscovered  planet ; 
and  carrying  out  his  inferences  more  in  detail  by  the 
aid  of  mathematics,  he  inferred  the  place  of  the  new 
planet  at  a  given  time.  The  astronomical  observer 
turned  his  telescope  in  the  direction  indicated,  and  dis- 
covered Neptune,  thus  verifying  the  inferences  of  the 
astronomer. 


OBJECT-TEACHING.  91 

Summary. — From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  will  be 
seen  that  object-lessons  are  of  use  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars : 

First,  they  furnish  the  best  means  known  for  the 
exercise  of  observation  and  the  training  of  the  percep- 
tive powers. 

Secondly,  they  constitute  the  first  steps  in  the  un- 
folding of  every  science ;  and  especially  are  they  indis- 
pensable in  the  study  of  natural  history  and  the  physi- 
cal sciences  generally. 

Thirdly,  they  give  to  the  mind  the  first  ideas  of 
orderly  and  methodical  thinking. 

Fourthly,  they  are  potent  in  exciting  the  mind  to 
activity,  and  in  arousing  that  curiosity  and  zeal  which 
lead  to  new  discovery. 

Fifthly,  they  furnish  the  means  by  which  laws  may 
be  verified  and  principles  may  be  applied. 

In  consequence  of  these  advantages,  the  time  for- 
merly spent  in  mastering  the  branches  taught  in  the 
primary  schools  may  be  greatly  abridged  ;  and  pleasant, 
health fnl  occupations  may  be  substituted  for  bnrden- 
BOme  and  barren  tasks. 

( 'nut ions  to  be  Observed. — In  consequence  of  errors 
committed  in  the  methods  of  conducting  object-lessons, 
the  good  which  would  have  resulted  from  their  propel 
use  has  not  been  realized,  and  discredit  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  whole  system.  These  errors  have  arisen  from 
a  violation  of  one  or  more  of  the  following  simple  rules 
in  regard  to  their  proper  use,  which  rules  may  be  di- 
rectly inferred  from  the  nature  of   the  BVStem  itself. 

First :  Xo  object-lesson  should  be  given  from  a  book. 
The  very  name  of  the  exercise  would  seem  to  be  sulli- 


02  PRINCIPLES  AND  TRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

cient  to  render  this  rule  unnecessary ;  but  there  have 
been  teachers  so  profoundly  stupid  as  to  oblige  pupils 
to  commit  to  memory  the  model  lessons  given  in  manu- 
als of  teaching. 

Secondly :  In  giving  an  object-lesson,  the  teacher 
should  have  a  distinct  end  in  view,  and  the  lesson  should 
be  considered  a  failure  unless  this  end  is  attained. 
Objectless  object-lessons  are  always  to  be  avoided. 

Thirdly :  Object-lessons  should  be  given  in  a  sys- 
tematic course,  each  one  conveying  its  own  teaching,  and 
bearing  some  palpable  relation  to  the  one  that  has  pre- 
ceded and  the  one  that  follows,  thus  leading  the  pupil 
to  the  discovery  of  the  relations,  and  enabling  him  to 
associate  them  in  memory.  Desultory  object-lessons 
are  of  little  worth. 

Fourthly:  Object-lessons  giving  pupils  ideas  and 
thoughts  with  which  they  are  already  familiar  are  to  be 
avoided.  The  interest  of  a  lesson  depends  very  much 
upon  its  novelty ;  and  if  this  element  is  wanting,  there 
is  very  little  left  to  create  a  permanent  impression. 

Fifthly:  In  giving  an  object-lesson,  the  teacher 
should  not  tell  the  pupils  the  things  they  are  to  find, 
but  he  should  lead  them  to  observe  with  accuracy, 
and  to  express  the  results  of  their  observation  in  proper 
language.  The  teacher's  work  is  rather  to  guide  by 
suggestion,  so  that  the  pupil  may  not  go  too  far  astray 
in  his  efforts  to  observe. 

The  Limits  of  Object-Teaching  can  now  be  readily 
seen.  In  the  objective  course  they  constitute  the  first 
steps,  and  in  the  subjective  course  they  are  useful  in 
the  ultimate  analysis  necessary  to  the  verification  of 
laws  and  to  the  application  of  principles.     When  the 


OBJECT-TEACHING.  93 

thought  rises  from  qualities  to  relations,  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  present  the  object  to  the  mind.  Subsen- 
suous  knowledge,  or  that  which  is  below  the  senses,  and 
obtained  through  them,  is  derived  from  objects;  but 
supersensuous  knowledge,  or  that  which  is  above  the 
senses,  and  is  the  result  of  reflection,  is  aided  only  indi- 
rectly by  object-lessons. 

The  final  result  of  mental  discipline  is  the  attain- 
ment of  supersensuous  knowledge,  and  the  ability  to 
deal  with  abstract  relations  and  principles.  This  con- 
summation of  education  is  equally  hindered  by  a  neg- 
lect of  object-lessons,  so  that  culture  rests  upon  a  narrow 
and  insufficient  basis  of  fact,  and  by  a  continuation  of 
exclusive  object-lessons  too  long,  so  that  the  mind  is  kept 
under  the  domain  of  the  senses,  and  independent  thought 
is  rendered  nearly  impossible.  In  the  latter  case,  such 
lessons  become  obstacles  rather  than  aids  to  the  highest 
attainments. 

Additional  Caution. — In  the  study  of  objects,  and 
especially  in  the  branches  of  natural  history,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  become  so  much  interested  in  the  objects 
themselves,  as  to  neglect  the  lessons  to  be  derived  from 
such  objects.  The  man  who  yields  to  this  tendency 
degenerates  from  a  possible  scientist  to  a  mere  collector. 
His  work  is  often  as  unmeaning  as  that  of  the  miser  in 
hoarding  money.  The  collection  which  is  really  valua- 
ble only  as  a  means  of  culture,  to  him  is  the  end  of  cul- 
ture, and  he  remains  in  a  state  of  mental  vassalage  to 
the  specimens  he  has  gathered.  One  good,  however, 
may  result  from  his  work  :  The  cabinet,  once  formed, 
may,  in  wiser  hands,  be  a  valuable  aid  in  attaining  the 
ends  of  a  true  education. 


94  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Conclusion. — When  education  is  more  thoroughly 
understood,  both  in  regard  to  its  aims  and  its  methods, 
it  is  evident  that  science  will  occupy  relatively  a  much 
higher  place  than  now.  From  the  beginning  of  school- 
life,  the  facts  and  elements  of  science  will  probably  be 
taken  as  the  basis  of  education.  When  this  general  re- 
sult is  reached,  object-lessons  will  fall  into  their  proper 
j^lace  as  indispensable  in  the  first  steps  of  scientific  re- 
search. In  the  pursuit  of  natural  history  the  larger 
share  of  the  work  will  consist  of  series  of  object-lessons. 
But  at  the  same  time,  in  all  probability,  the  peculiar 
form  which  these  lessons  have  now  generally  taken,  as 
altogether  disconnected  from  the  regular  studies  of  the 
school,  will  be  materially  modified  or  entirely  aban- 
doned. When  science  is  taught  in  a  regular  and  sys- 
tematic manner,  fragments  of  science  will  no  longer  be 
necessary. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

RELATIVE   VALUE  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  BRANCHES 
OF  INSTRUCTION. 

The  End  of  Education. — In  considering  the  nature 
of  education,  Herbert  Spencer  says :  "  How  to  live  ? 
that  is  the  essential  question  for  us.  Kot  how  to  live 
in  the  mere  material  sense  only,  but  in  the  widest  sense. 
The  general  problem  which  comprehends  every  special 
problem  is  the  right  ruling  of  conduct  in  all  directions 
and  under  all  circumstances:  In  what  way  to  treat  the 
body;  in  what  way  to  treat  the  mind;  in  what  way  t<> 
behave  as  a  citizen;  in  what  way  to  utilize  all  those 
sources  of  happiness  which  Nature  supplies  :  how  to  use 
all  our  faculties  to  the  greatest  advantage  to  ourselves 
and  others;  how  to  live  completely.  And  this  being 
the  great  thing  needful  to  learn,  by  consequence  is  the 
greal  thing  which  education  has  to  teach.  To  prepare  us 
for  complete  living,  is  the  function  which  education  lias 
to  discharge;  and  the  only  rational  mode  of  judging  of 
any  educational  course  is  to  judge  in  what  degree  it  dis- 
charges such  functions." 

Practical  Questions. — Admitting  that  it  is  desira- 
ble that  education,  to  the  extent  of  its  influence,  should 
contribute  to  good  conduct  and  completeness  of  living, 


96  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

the  questions  that  are  forced  upon  us  are  :  What  course 
of  study  will  best  accomplish  these  ends  ?  and  what  is 
the  order  in  which  the  several  branches  of  education 
should  be  presented  ?  Ought  we  to  accept  the  prevail- 
ing customs  in  these  regards — customs  inherited  from 
remote  generations — or  should  we  submit  each  branch 
and  each  step  in  study  to  the  test  which  this  high  ideal 
of  the  nature  of  educational  work  imposes  ? 

The  Old  and  the  New. — It  is  always  well  to  hold  to 
customs  and  institutions  of  the  past  until  it  is  clearly 
seen  that  a  change  will  be  for  human  benefit.  The 
past  imposes  authority  upon  us  to  this  extent,  that  we 
are  to  take  for  granted  that  any  custom  had  its  origin  in 
human  needs,  and  has  been  of  use  in  promoting  human 
welfare.  This  follows  from  the  fact  of  its  being.  The 
good  of  society  demands  that  this  authority  be  obeyed 
and  this  custom  or  institution  be  conserved,  until  intel- 
ligence has  so  far  advanced  as  to  show  that  the  interests 
of  humanity  demand  a  change,  either  in  a  readjustment 
of  details,  or  in  a  reorganization  of  fundamental  princi- 
ples. 

Responsibility  for  Change. — The  burden  of  proof 
in  regard  to  the  desirableness  and  necessity  of  a  change 
rests  entirely  upon  those  demanding  it ;  and  this  proof, 
to  be  perf ect,  should  include  two  elements :  one  destruc- 
tive, showing  the  imperfections  and  shortcomings  of  the 
old ;  and  the  other  constructive,  replacing  the  old  by 
something  manifestly  higher  and  better.  By  the  con- 
flict between  these  antagonistic  forces,  the  poise  of  so- 
ciety is  maintained,  and  a  slow  but  sure  advance  is  made 
toward  a  higher  state  of  civilization. 

Conditions  of  Change. — In  this  perpetually  recur- 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  07 

ring  controversy  two  attitudes  are  obstructive  to  human 
welfare :  the  one  obstinately  clinging  to  the  old  social 
forms,  which,  from  changed  conditions  and  circum- 
stances, have  outlived  their  usefulness ;  and  the  other 
so  eagerly  and  unintelligently  iconoclastic  as  to  wage 
war  upon  present  institutions,  before  any  rational  and 
adequate  system  has  been  devised  to  take  their  place. 
The  triumph  of  the  one  would  arrest  human  progress, 
of  the  other  would  destroy  social  order. 

The  principles  which  should  govern  change,  true  in 
general,  are  true  in  regard  to  education.  The  past  has 
transmitted  to  the  present  a  course  of  study  and  a  sys- 
tem of  methods ;  and  in  proposing  a  change,  the  obliga- 
tion is  imposed  upon  us  of  showing  the  errors  of  present 
practices,  and  of  presenting  a  system  better  adapted  to 
the  needs  and  circumstances  of  to-day. 

Real  and  Apparent  Knowledge. — At  this  point  it  is 
not  intended  to  attempt  anything  like  a  scientific  classi- 
fication of  human  knowledge,  but  only  such  a  general 
division  as  will  be  of  use  in  solving  the  problem  imme- 
diately before  us. 

In  regard  to  education,  the  branches  readily  divide 
themselves  into  two  classes  :  those  that  treat  directly  of 
the  facts  and  laws  of  matter  and  mind,  and  those  which 
are  used  to  aid  in  the  understanding  and  development 
of  the  direct  branches.  These  may  be  regarded  respec- 
tively as  knowledge,  and  the  tools  by  which  knowledge 
is  obtained,  or  as  real  knowledge  and  apparent  knowl- 
edge. Some  of  the  studies  pursued  in  school  are  of  a 
double  nature,  combining  both  apparent  and  real  knowl- 
edge. 

Relations  of  Language. —  Language  is  useful  for  the 
5 


08  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

expression  and  preservation  of  knowledge ;  but  in  its  use 
it  is  simply  a  tool  of  knowledge,  and  not  knowledge 
itself.  The  means  by  which  language  is  mastered  in  its 
use,  including  spelling,  reading,  and  writing ;  and  lan- 
guage itself,  when  actively  employed  in  the  prosecution 
of  other  branches  of  instruction,  all  occupy  this  subor- 
dinate position  as  tools,  useful  in  proportion  as  they 
serve  to  disclose  the  treasures  of  real  knowledge.  When 
language,  however,  is  studied  in  its  structure,  its  history, 
and  its  relation  to  the  development  of  man,  it  becomes 
a  branch  of  real  knowledge. 

Relations  of  Mathematics. — Our  first  knowledge  of 
objects  relates  to  qualities  alone ;  but  before  this  knowl- 
edge is  made  exact,  so  as  to  merit  the  name  of  science, 
quantitative  relations  must  be  observed  and  measured. 
From  the  observation  of  these  quantitative  relations,  the 
first  ideas  of  number  and  definite  extension  seem  to 
have  arisen  ;  and  these  ideas,  abstracted  from  the  objects 
which  gave  them  birth,  and  reduced  to  order,  form  the 
elements  of  mathematics.  The  mathematical  branches, 
so  formed,  are  indispensable  in  measuring  the  quantita- 
tive relations  of  the  concrete  sciences,  and  in  this  sense 
they  are  simply  tools  of  knowledge.  "When  mathe- 
matics is  studied  to  discover  the  laws  of  relations,  which 
it  discloses  independent  of  the  concrete,  it  furnishes  real 
knowledge,  and  has  a  distinct  place  as  such,  in  a  course 
of  study. 

Macaulay  says  :  "  Bacon,  assuming  the  well-being  of 
the  race  to  be  the  end  of  knowledge,  pronounced  that 
mathematical  science  could  claim  no  higher  rank  than 
that  of  an  appendage  or  an  auxiliary  to  other  sciences. 
Mathematical  science,  he  says,  is  the  handmaid  of  nat- 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  99 

ural  philosophy,  and  she  ought  to  demean  herself  as 
such ;  and  he  declares  he  cannot  conceive  by  what  ill- 
chance  it  has  happened  that  she  presumes  to  claim  pre- 
cedence over  her  mistress." 

Direct  and  Incidental  Acquirement. — Experience 
demonstrates  that  the  use  of  tools  is  most  quickly  learned 
by  engaging  in  real  work.  The  end  to  be  accomplished 
in  education  is  the  attainment  of  real  knowledge.  To 
this  end  the  main  purpose  of  the  pupil  should  be  di- 
rected. In  the  endeavor  to  come  into  possession  of  this 
real  knowledge,  the  pupil  incidentally  becomes  familiar 
with  the  tools  necessary  to  serve  his  purpose.  The 
branches  of  real  knowledge  are  mastered  by  steadily 
fixing  the  primary  attention  upon  the  thoughts  which 
they  contain ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, both  in  writing  and  speaking,  and  the  elements 
of  arithmetic  and  geometry,  may  be  largely  acquired 
incidentally  through  the  action  of  secondary  attention. 

Kind  of  Knowledge  Required. — The  necessities  of 
the  mind  demand  real  knowledge  to  arouse  its  activities 
and  to  promote  its  growtli  and  well-being.  Language 
and  mathematics  can  no  more  satisfy  the  cravings  of 
the  mind  than  the  knife  and  fork  and  balance  for  weigh- 
ing meat  can  satisfy  the  stomach  in  its  cravings  for  food. 
However  useful  these  branches  and  articles  may  be  re- 
spectively in  preparing  knowledge  and  food,  the  one 
can  never  be  knowledge  nor  the  other  food.  This  par- 
allel does  not  hold  in  the  advanced  course  of  instruc- 
tion, when  both  language  and  mathematics  are  studied 
for  intrinsic  principles,  and  in  their  general  relations  to 
human  progress. 

Branches  of  Heal  Knowledge. — The  branches  which 


100  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

furnish  the  real  knowledge  demanded  by  the  mind  are 
readily  subdivided  into  two  classes:  those  that  treat  of 
Nature  below  man,  and  those  that  treat  of  man  and  his 
works.  These  are  roughly  indicated  as  Science  and 
Philosophy,  or  as  the  Natural  Sciences  and  the  Hu- 
manities. Properly  speaking,  the  term  science  would 
apply  to  the  whole  body  of  knowledge  in  any  depart- 
ment of  human  investigation  which  is  reduced  to  sys- 
tematic order ;  while  philosophy  would  apply  to  the 
laws  of  relations,  and  the  causes  of  phenomena  and  be- 
ing which,  science  unfolds. 

The  Branches  as  Related  to  Development. — 
"We  have  next  to  consider  the  value  of  the  different 
branches  in  regard  to  the  two  great  ends  of  education : 
the  development  of  the  powers,  and  practical  use.  For 
both  these  purposes  real  knowledge  is  demanded,  and 
this  knowledge  should  be  presented  in  definite  order. 
The  purposes  of  study  may  be  defeated  by  mistaking 
apparent  for  real  knowledge,  by  presenting  subjects  at 
the  wrong  time,  or  by  failing  to  recognize  the  order  of 
dependence.  We  call  attention,  first,  to  the  value  of 
the  branches  in  their  relations  to  the  powers  of  the 
mind. 

The  Natural  Sciences  as  Promoting  Development. 
—From  objects  are  obtained  the  qualities,  facts,  and 
ideas  which  are  indispensable  in  the  development  of  the 
perceptive  powers.  The  natural  sciences  furnish  mate- 
rial for  this  purpose  that  is  fundamental,  that  is  easily 
accessible,  that  is  full  of  interest,  and  that  is  sufficient. 
Without  the  materials  which  external  Nature  furnishes, 
the  perceptive  powers  cannot  be  brought  into  the  high- 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  101 

est  state  of  activity,  and  the  mind  will  lack  that  primary 
knowledge  necessary  for  the  normal  operation  of  the 
higher  faculties. 

The  Discipline  of  Memory. — As  the  office  of  mem- 
ory is  to  record  and  preserve  the  results  of  the  activities 
of  the  observing  and  reflective  powers,  it  follows  that 
those  branches  best  calculated  to  stimulate  these  powers 
will  also  be  best  for  the  development  of  memory.  AVe 
have  already  seen  that  the  highest  condition  or  form  of 
memory  is  that  founded  upon  the  laws  of  association. 
Above  all  other  subjects,  the  natural  sciences  tend  to 
bring  this  principle  of  association  into  active  exercise. 

An  idea  is  first  gained,  and  then  is  associated  di- 
rectly with  the  name  or  word  that  expresses  it,  so  that 
the  two  are  henceforth  one.  These  ideas  are  again  as- 
sociated by  their  likenesses  and  unlikenoses  on  succes- 
sively higher  planes,  until  the  whole  mass  of  knowledge 
is  retained  by  means  of  its  relations. 

The  II "in unities  as  Promoting  Development. — The 
humanities  present  facts  and  relations  more  complex 
than  the  facts  and  relation-  derived  from  the  natural 
sciences,  and  hence  come  later  in  order.  They  serve, 
however,  to  carry  on  the  development  of  perception  and 
memory  to  a  still  more  advanced  state. 

Discipline  of  the  Reflective  Fhotdties. — The  higher 
faculties  of  the  mind,  including  the  imagination,  reason, 
and  judgment,  are  brought  into  most  active  exercise  by 
those  very  facts  which  are  found  most  valuable  in  de- 
veloping perception  and  memory.  From  the  facts  which 
we  perceive — their  connection  and  dependence — we 
make  inferences  and  draw  conclusions  ;  and  the  value 
of  these  inferences  and  conclusions  will  depend  upon 


102  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

the  accuracy  with  which  we  have  observed,  and  the 
faithfulness  with  which  these  observations  have  been 
recorded. 

General  Effect  of  Real  Knowledge. — Study  of  this 
kind  tends  to  form  a  habit  of  acquisitiveness  ;  a  habit  of 
collecting  all  the  facts  bearing  upon  given  cases ;  of 
carefully  examining  and  combining  these  facts  or  data  ; 
of  drawing  such  inferences  only  as  the  data  will  war- 
rant ;  and  of  verifying  the  inferences  by  renewed  ob- 
servations and  experiments.  These  habits  are  such  as 
inevitably  lead  to  the  highest  results  in  every  depart- 
ment of  investigation,  and  they  are  necessary  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  truth  in  every  direction. 

The  Di8cipline  of  Conduct. — In  addition  to  the 
beneficial  results  to  every  power  of  the  mind,  the  habits 
of  thought  formed  by  the  careful  study  of  real  subjects, 
commencing  with  the  natural  sciences,  directly  tend  to 
right  conduct  in  life.  In  every  step  of  progress  the  pupil 
learns  the  necessity  of  ridding  his  mind  of  bias,  and  of 
accepting  that  which  is  shown  to  be  true.  In  this  way 
a  love  of  truth  is  constantly  engendered ;  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  love  for  truth  will  be  the  love  for  right, 
and  the  disposition  to  act  rightly.  Carried  into  the  field 
of  morals,  these  methods  of  thought  must  result  in  mak- 
ing truth  supreme  ;  in  stimulating  action  in  obedience 
to  the  dictates  of  truth ;  and  in  carrying  into  practice 
the  principles  of  justice  which  are  founded  upon  truth. 

The  Branches  as  Related  to  Uses. — Besides  its 
office  of  affording  nurture  to  the  mind  and  of  giving  it 
discipline,  knowledge  is  indispensable  to  human  well- 
being  in  every  sphere  of  life. 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  103 

Physical  needs  must  be  perpetually  supplied,  or  the 
body  dies.  Children  must  have  intelligent  care,  or  they 
perish.  The  functions  of  industry  and  citizenship  must 
be  intelligently  performed,  or  society  relapses  into  a  state 
of  barbarism.  Researches  must  be  constantly  made  into 
the  secrets  of  Nature,  or  civilization  will  cease  to  ad- 
vance, and  become  stagnant. 

Uses  of  Natural  Science. — The  natural  sciences 
furnish  the  knowledge  which  is  indispensable  for  these 
purposes,  and  which  is  tho  most  fundamental  of  all. 
The  scope  of  these  sciences  is  broad.  They  make  us 
acquainted  :  first,  with  the  inorganic  world  ;  secondly, 
with  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  organic  world  ;  and 
thirdly,  with  the  forces  which  control  the  action  of 
matter  in  masses  and  in  atoms.  They  make  us  ac- 
quainted with  our  environment,  with  the  relations  of 
our  surroundings  to  ourselves,  and  with  all  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  be  observed  for  the  preservation  of 
our  own  existence. 

A  neglect  of  the  truths  which  they  teach  entails 
upon  us  disease,  suffering,  and  death.  An  intelligent 
comprehension  of  these  truths  enables  us  to  avoid,  in  a 
large  measure,  the  causes  of  disease,  to  diminish  suffer- 
ing, and  to  prevent  the  premature  termination  of  life. 
These  truths  are  so  fundamental  that  they  affect  every 
person  during  every  moment  of  his  existence.  No  other 
sort  of  intelligence  can  supersede  this,  as  there  can  be 
no  escape  from  the  evil  consequences  which  ignorance 
in  this  direction  inflicts. 

Natural  Science  and  Industry. — The  natural  sci- 
ences lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  our  industries  and 
physical  improvements.      In  the  crude  industries  de- 


104         PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACIILNG. 

vised  to  supply  primitive  human  needs,  the  physical 
sciences  mostly  had  their  origin.  Step  by  step  they 
gathered  all  the  facts  which  the  industries  supplied,  ol> 
served  relations,  and  inferred  causes  and  laws.  React- 
ing upon  the  industries,  the  sciences  apply  laws  and 
principles  to  complicated  cases,  and  produce  results  en- 
tirely  unattainable  in  a  more  primitive  society,  but  in- 
dispensable  to  present  existence. 

Examples. — A  large  share  of  our  food  is  produced 
by  agricultural  processes.  Unless  agriculture  is  intelli- 
gently pursued,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  present 
population  of  the  earth  would  perish.  But  the  success- 
ful pursuit  of  agriculture  demands  a  knowledge  of  the 
soils,  their  composition  and  changes,  the  principles  and 
methods  of  restoring  the  vast  waste  of  constant  crop- 
ping, which  involves  a  knowledge  of  mineralogy  and 
chemistry.  There  is  also  demanded  a  knowledge  of  veg- 
etable growth,  which  involves  botany ;  of  noxious  and 
beneficial  insects,  and  of  the  useful  animals  that  subsist 
upon  vegetation,  which  involves  the  various  branches 
of  zoology.  Upon  these  sciences  also  depend  the  suc- 
cessful production  of  cotton,  flax,  and  silk,  and  their 
manufacture  into  cloth  and  clothing  ;  the  various  other 
manufactures  necessary  to  supply  human  needs  ;  the 
construction  of  houses  so  as  to  afford  protection  from 
the  elements ;  the  arrangements  for  artificial  heating 
and  ventilation  ;  the  construction  of  domestic  utensils, 
and  of  weapons  both  offensive  and  defensive,  and  the 
creation  of  all  those  comforts  and  conveniences  essential 
to  the  highest  enjoyment  of  life. 

Joined  with  mathematics,  these  sciences  have  ena- 
bled us  to  construct  roads,  railroads,  bridges,  and  ca- 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  105 

nals  ;  to  tunnel  mountains ;  to  furnish  large  cities  with 
light,  and  never-failing  supplies  of  water ;  to  drain 
marshes  and  construct  sewers ;  and,  in  a  large  measure, 
to  comprehend  sanitary  laws,  and  provide  the  appliances 
necessary  to  secure  perfect  obedience  to  these  laws. 

Ubiquity  of  the  Elements  of  Natural  Science. — 
The  facts  of  Xature  which  form  the  elements  of  the 
natural  sciences  are  everywhere  around  us,  and  are  forc- 
ing themselves  upon  our  notice.  They  come  thronging 
in  through  the  avenues  of  sense  on  every  side,  demand- 
ing recognition.  They  will  be  recognized,  and  will  per- 
form their  beneficent  work,  unless  the  attention  is  reso- 
lutely and  systematically  turned  away  from  them  and 
engrossed  in  other  thoughts.  This  can  only  happen 
under  a  vicious  system  of  education,  where  prominence 
is  given  to  apparent  rather  than  to  real  knowledge. 
Should  we  succeed,  however,  in  shutting  out  the  ideas 
which  are  so  eager  to  enter,  we  are  made  to  suffer  in 
actual  pain,  in  the  thwarting  of  desires,  or  in  the  loss 
of  privileges  or  power. 

The  elements  of  the  natural  sciences  are  so  closely 
connected  with  physical  well-being  that  they  more  pow- 
erfully affect  the  mind,  and  hence  arc  adapted  to  awa- 
ken a  deeper  interest  than  any  other  branches  of  study. 
This  interest  renders  acquisition  easier,  and  gives  to  the 
mind  a  greater  store  of  knowledge  with  the  same  de- 
gree of  effort. 

Uses  of  the  Humanities. — The  humanities,  treating 
of  man  and  his  work,  come  in  to  cany  forward  the 
work  of  education  toward  completion.  These  branches 
include  the  division  of  man  into  races  ;  the  distribution 
of  races  upon  the  earth  ;  the  relation  of  man  to  his  en- 


106         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

vironment ;  the  achievements  of  man  in  subduing  Na- 
ture, and  in  controlling  natural  forces  ;  and  the  changes 
which  man  has  wrought  upon  the  earth.  They  also  in- 
clude an  examination  of  the  nature  and  operations  of 
mind,  and  the  products  of  mind  in  their  threefold 
manifestation — intellectual,  moral,  and  aesthetic. 

Conditions  of  their  Successful  Use. — The  humani- 
ties, however,  to  be  of  use  in  investigations  and  indus- 
trial pursuits  or  business  operations,  must  present  real 
knowledge,  and  not  merely  serve  as  tools  for  getting 
real  knowledge.  In  respect  to  methods  of  study,  they 
must  also  conform  to  the  methods  pursued  in  natural 
history  and  in  other  objective  studies,  where  facts  are 
first  acquired  and  the  process  is  continued  through  the 
regular  chain  of  deductive  operations  until  the  law  is 
discovered. 

To  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  humanities,  a 
knowledge  of  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  material  world 
are  indispensable.  Thought  and  action  everywhere  are 
found  to  be  so  dependent  upon  outward  circumstances 
and  considerations  that  they  cannot  be  understood  until 
the  forces  that  control  them  are  first  comprehended. 
For  example,  the  first  steps  in  civilization  were  ren- 
dered possible  only  in  a  region  where  the  soil  is  fertile, 
the  climate  moderate,  and  where  mountains  or  other 
natural  barriers  afford  protection  and  isolation.  The 
migration  of  races  and  the  march  of  armies,  which  have 
been  instrumental  in  spreading  civilization,  have  been 
determined  by  the  direction  of  mountain  ranges,  and 
the  position  of  other  natural  obstacles. 

The  character  of  every  nation  has  been,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  determined  by  the  circumstances  which 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  107 

have  surrounded  it,  and  these  circumstances  in  turn 
have  largely  depended  upon  material  conditions.  The 
events  of  history  can  never  be  understood  unless  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  regions  where  they  transpire 
are  first  well  understood.  Even  the  literature  and  art 
of  a  people  are  found  to  be  fashioned  very  much  by 
the  physical  surroundings  amid  which  they  had  their 
origin. 

Special  Studies. — The  special  studies  ranked  among 
the  humanities,  which  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
the  work  of  education,  are  those  which  consider  man 
from  the  individual  outward,  or  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy :  man  as  a  member  of  society,  or  sociology  ; 
and  man  in  his  past,  or  history.  Each  of  these  contrib- 
utes real  knowledge  to  his  development ;  the  truths  of 
each  are  necessary  to  his  highest  welfare  ;  and  from  each 
laws  are  derived,  essential  as  a  guide  to  individual  con- 
duct, and  to  the  general  progress  of  the  race. 

Importance  of  History. — As  the  branches  under 
the  first  two  of  these  general  divisions  have  received 
attention  elsewhere,  history  alone  remains  to  be  noticed 
in  its  threefold  aspect  of  chronology,  philology,  and 
archaeology. 

Chronology. — The  study  of  chronology  makes  us  ac- 
quainted with  the  achievements  of  the  nations  and  races 
which  at  present  inhabit  the  earth,  and  of  those  that 
have  passed  away,  as  far  as  recorded.  Its  field  is  his- 
tory as  preserved  in  literature  and  tradition.  It  shows 
the  change  of  man  from  a  Low  mental  and  moral  state 
to  his  present  condition,  not  by  an  uninterrupted  ad- 
vance, but  by  a  complicated  Beriea  of  progressions  and 


108  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIILNG. 

retrogressions,  difficult  to  trace  and  analyze.  With  the 
lapse  of  sufficient  time,  however,  the  direction  of  the 
change  is  manifest,  and  is  seen  to  be  growth. 

The  facts  which  chronology  furnishes,  supplemented 
by  those  derived  from  the  other  sciences  which  bear 
upon  the  subject,  bring  into  light  the  sequences  of 
events,  and  show  that  national  triumphs  and  disasters 
have  their  roots  in  moral  causes.  In  this  chronological 
survey,  we  can  see  enough  of  the  past  of  man  to  know 
what  elements  enter  into  human  affairs,  and  we  are  able 
to  distinguish  the  permanent  from  the  transient,  and  to 
order  both  individual  and  national  lives  progressively 
more  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  universe. 

Philology. — "When  recorded  history  fails,  investiga- 
tion extends  to  a  more  distant  past  by  means  of  philol- 
ogy. In  the  direction  of  historic  research  the  pursuit 
of  language  receives  its  richest  rewards.  Studied  not 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  additional  means  of  express- 
ing knowledge,  but  for  obtaining  knowledge  itself,  it 
furnishes  some  of  the  most  important  links  in  the  chain 
of  evidence  relating  to  the  great  problems  of  man's 
origin,  unity,  and  destiny.  In  the  structure  of  words 
are  recorded  the  first  dim  perceptions  of  mind,  looking 
out  upon  the  unknown,  and  the  successive  steps  tow- 
ard an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  facts,  forces, 
and  relations  of  the  universe.  These  words  need  to  be 
studied  with  as  minute  a  care  as  the  specimens  of  nat- 
ural history ;  both  the  living  words  and  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  human  speech  as  appearing  in  the  form  of  ob- 
solete words  and  dead  languages.  The  study  of  these 
specimens,  living  and  dead,  equally  repay  the  investi- 
gator in  furnishing  material  for  broader  generalizations, 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF   INSTRUCTION.  109 

and  in  leading  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  laws 
which  control  mind  and  its  products. 

Archaeology. — The  study  of  the  monuments,  uten- 
sils, and  weapons  made  by  man  carries  the  mind  back 
still  farther  into  antiquity,  back  beyond  chronology, 
beyond  philology,  and  beyond  every  evidence  of  man's 
existence,  except  that  which  is  afforded  by  the  most 
imperishable  materials  upon  which  the  labor  of  man 
has  been  spent.  From  our  homes  and  from  mod- 
ern cities,  furnished  with  all  the  materials  of  present 
civilization,  we  travel  over  the  familiar  ground  of  chro- 
nology, finding  cities,  and  temples,  and  pyramids  ;  and 
beneath  the  crumbling  ruins  of  great  cities  described  in 
ancient  lore,  we  find  the  ruins  of  other  cities  of  which 
even  tradition  is  silent.  Still  going  back,  step  by  step, 
we  find  the  evidences  of  human  art  continually  becom- 
ing less,  until  the  rude  arrow-head  of  the  primitive 
man  terminates  investigation  by  archaeological  means, 
and  marks  the  disappearance  of  any  intelligence  suffi- 
cient to  leave  an  enduring  evidence  of  human  existence. 
What  is  Gained. — The  study  of  these  various  phases 
of  history  puts  man  in  possession  of  the  past  of  human- 
ity, back  to  the  dawn  of  intelligence,  and  shows  what 
elements  enter  into  his  individual  being,  and  into  the 
civilization  of  the  race.  This  knowledge  not  only  grati- 
fies the  natural  curiosity  in  regard  to  the  past,  but  is  a 
necessity  in  putting  man  in  the  complete  possession  of 
his  powers,  and  in  enabling  him  to  comprehend  the 
tendency  of  existence,  so  as  to  be  able  to  adjust  himself 
to  its  perpetually  varying  conditions. 

This  si  nd  v,  so  varied   and   profound,  belongs  to  the 
advanced  course  of   instruct  ion,   and    i<   available    only 


HO  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

when  a  broad  foundation  of  physical  knowledge  has  been 
laid  in  the  primary  course.  It  supplements  the  physical 
sciences,  and  furnishes  a  field  for  thought  and  investiga- 
tion full  of  the  promise  of  fruit. 

Foreign  Languages. — The  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage may  be  pursued  for  either  one  of  three  legitimate 
purposes :  The  possession  of  additional  means  for  acquir- 
ing and  expressing  knowledge  ;  the  knowledge  found  in 
the  literature  of  the  language  ;  and  the  help  which  the 
language  gives  to  philological  research.  As  mental  de- 
velopment is  incident  to  all  study  pursued  by  proper 
methods,  its  consideration  as  the  special  object  of  lin- 
guistic study  is  not  entertained. 

Elementary  Study.— All  elementary  study  of  a  for- 
eign language  must  be  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  its  structure  and  idioms,  and  with  the 
meaning  of  its  words.  It  furnishes  the  mind  with  no 
real  knowledge,  but  simply  puts  it  in  possession  of  the 
implements  by  which  knowledge  may  be  acquired.  As 
a  means,  this  study  is  valuable ;  as  an  end,  comparatively 
valueless.  Carried  to  the  point  of  mastery,  it  furnishes 
means  of  communication  which  may  be  used  for  valu- 
able purposes ;  stopping  short  of  this  point,  the  time 
spent  in  its  pursuit  would  bear  much  better  fruit  if 
given  to  the  study  of  the  vernacular,  perfecting  the  use 
of  one  tongue,  rather  than  obtaining  a  smattering  of 
many. 

Foreign  Literature. — The  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, when  pursued  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  literature  which  the  language  con- 
tains, produces  fruit  in  the  form  of  development  and 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF   INSTRUCTION.  \\\ 

culture.  Such  study  belongs  to  the  advanced  course. 
To  a  critical  appreciation  of  the  finest  literary  produc- 
tions of  a  people,  an  acquaintance  with  the  language  is 
doubtless  a  necessity  ;  but  science  and  philosophy  can  be 
obtained  equally  "well  from  translations,  and  even  the 
purely  literary  works  can  be  better  appreciated  through 
a  good  translation,  than  by  their  study  in  the  original, 
when  their  language  is  imperfectly  mastered.  In  home 
dress,  English  scholars  may  come  in  possession  of  the 
best  thought  of  the  world  wherever  it  may  originate. 
In  poetry,  and  in  the  prose  where  form  is  an  essential 
element,  there  will  be  loss  in  translation ;  but  this  loss 
may  be  compensated  wholly,  or  in  part,  by  the  study  of 
the  English  masters  in  these  departments  of  literature. 
Comparative  Philology. — Linguistic  study,  pursued 
for  the  purpose  of  throwing  light  upon  human  history, 
and  of  discovering  the  laws  and  evolution  of  language 
itself,  belongs  to  the  higher  and  professional  courses  of 
instruction.  It  does  not  constitute  the  basis  of  culture, 
but  rather  it  completes  the  superstructure  in  one  direc- 
tion. 

The  Ancient  Languages. — It  is  not  designed  here 
to  enter  into  the  controversies  that  have  risen  respecting 
the  relative  advantages  of  the  ancient  languages  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences 
on  the  other;  but  the  scope  of  the  discussion  demands 
that  the  claims  of  the  former,  as  the  exclusive  basis  of 
culture,  should  receive  examination. 

Advantages  Claimed. — The  advantages  claimed  for 
the  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  are  :  That 
there  can  be  no  complete  or  broad  learning  except  through 


112  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

these  brandies,  which  have  been  honored  by  the  use  of 
centuries  in  all  the  great  schools  of  instruction,  and  have 
constituted  a  prominent  agency  in  the  culture  of  edu- 
cated men  for  many  generations ;  that  a  broad  culture 
must  embrace  an  acquaintance  with  the  life  and  thought 
of  antiquity ;  that,  by  requiring  patient  and  prolonged 
attention,  they  confer  a  severe  mental  discipline ;  that 
the  act  of  translating  into  the  vernacular  cultivates  dis- 
crimination in  the  use  of  language  ;  that  a  familiar  ac- 
quaintance with  the  ancient  classics  is  necessary  to  an 
exact  knowledge  of  all  modern  languages. 

Difficulties  Encountered. — Admitting  that  a  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages 
and  literature  may  be  necessary  to  the  widest  learning, 
it  may  be  objected,  to  their  general  use  as  branches  of 
elementary  study,  that  it  is  utterly  impracticable  in  our 
schools  to  cany  the  study  of  these  languages  to  such  a 
point  of  thoroughness  as  will  at  all  realize  the  results 
aimed  at. 

A  mere  smattering  of  a  language  will  not  bestow 
the  ability  to  enter  into  an  acquaintance  with  its  litera- 
ture. This  objection  would  seem  to  offset  all  the  ad- 
vantages named  except  two :  the  mental  discipline  re- 
sulting from  the  close  attention  required  in  the  study 
of  these  languages,  and  the  power  of  discrimination 
cultivated  by  the  work  of  translation. 

Mental  Discipline. — It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
responsibility  rests  upon  the  true  educator  of  selecting 
such  studies  for  pupils  as  will  give  the  highest  develop- 
ment with  the  least  possible  waste.  The  question  is 
not  whether  the  classic  languages  are  capable  of  con- 
ferring upon  the  student  certain  beneficial  results,  but 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  H3 

whether  these  results  are  necessary,  and  -whether  these 
languages  -will  produce  them  more  economically  than 
certain  other  branches. 

So  far  as  mental  discipline  is  concerned,  including 
the  habits  of  observation,  of  quick  and  accurate  percep- 
tion, of  severe  attention,  of  close  and  patient  reasoning, 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  branches  are  capable 
of  more  effective  service  than  the  natural  sciences  and 
mathematics.  And  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  spon- 
taneous mental  energy,  and  a  habit  of  original  discovery, 
it  will  scarcely  be  denied  that  the  natural  sciences  stand 
supreme. 

In  acquiring  the  power  of  nice  discrimination  in  the 
use  of  language,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  pupil 
will  be  benefited  by  a  careful  drill  in  translating  a  for- 
eign language  into  his  own  tongue.  But  the  question 
still  remains,  whether  this  result  may  not  be  accom- 
plished by  the  study  of  modern  languages  ;  and  whether 
a  sufficient  mastery  of  language  may  not  be  obtained 
for  understanding  and  expressing  all  the  thoughts 
ever  born  into  the  world,  and  even  for  giving  the 
nicest  and  most  delicate  shades  of  meaning,  by  the 
study  of  our  own  vernacular.  The  language  of  Shake- 
speare, Milton,  and  Blackstone  has  powers  and  capaci- 
ties which  render  it  inferior  to  no  tongue  ever  spoken 
by  man. 

Schiller's  Opinion. — Apropos  to  the  value  of  trans- 
lating for  the  purpose  of  gaining  power  in  the  ver- 
nacular, the  German  poet  Schiller  said  to  a  friend, 
who  asked  him  whether  he  read  Shakespeare  in  Eng- 
lish: "  My  business  in  life  is  to  write  German;  and  I 
am  convinced  that  a  person  cannot  read  much  in  a  for- 


114         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

eign  language  without  losing  that  delicate  tact  in  the 
perception  of  the  power  of  words  which  is  essential 
to  good  writing." 

Summary  ra  Regaed  to  Language. — From  the  fore- 
going discussion  in  regard  to  language  we  derive  con- 
clusions as  follows : 

First:  That  language  in  its  use,  to  a  wide  extent, 
is  acquired  incidentally,  and  that  this  acquisition  com- 
mences at  an  early  period  of  infancy,  and  continues 
through  life. 

Second:  That  the  study  of  language  directly,  whether 
in  the  form  of  grammar  or  of  comparative  philology, 
involves  principles  closely  allied  to  mental  philoso- 
phy, and  hence  belongs  to  the  advanced  course  of 
instruction. 

Third  :  That  the  study  of  the  vernacular  leads  most 
directly  to  the  mastery  of  language,  and  hence  should 
be  made  the  basis  of  all  linguistic  study. 

Fourth:  That  the  pursuit  of  the  classic  languages 
belongs  to  the  professional  rather  than  to  the  general 
course,  and  that  classic  study  possesses  no  just  claims  to 
be  considered  the  basis  of  modern  education,  or  the  ex- 
clusive means  for  the  attainment  of  culture. 

Fifth :  That  to  reverse  the  process  here  pointed 
out,  and  to  make  the  study  of  language  the  basis  of 
instruction,  is  to  violate  the  laws  of  mental  growth, 
to  fill  the  mind  with  words  instead  of  ideas,  and  to 
form  habits  of  expending  so  much  force  in  verbal 
criticism  as  to  overlook  the  weightier  matter  of  the 
character  and  truth  of  the  statement  which  the  lan- 
guage contains. 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF  INSTRUCTION.  H5 

General  Summary. — The  conclusions  in  regard  to 
the  relative  value  of  the  different  branches  of  instruc- 
tion may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

First :  That  real  knowledge  is  demanded  for  both 
mental  development  and  practical  use  ;  that  the  branches 
most  valuable  for  mental  development  are  those  that 
enter  most  extensively  into  the  affairs  of  life ;  that  the 
order  to  be  pursued  in  promoting  the  normal  growth  of 
the  mind  exactly  conforms  to  the  order  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  sciences  founded  upon  dependence  ;  and  that 
the  methods  found  to  be  most  efficacious  in  arousing 
the  facnlties  are  the  best  calculated  to  unfold  the  truths 
of  science. 

Second:  That  the  kind  of  knowledge  best  adapted 
to  the  promotion  of  the  two  great  ends  of  education  is 
that  which  lies  nearest  to  us,  which  foices  itself  most 
strongly  upon  our  notice,  and  which  excites  the  great- 
est interest  in  the  mind  when  attention  has  been  directed 
to  it.  From  that  which  is  nearest  and  can  be  most 
easily  known,  the  mind  passes  outward  to  the  more  re- 
mote, abstract,  and  unknown. 

Third:  That  in  the  true  course  of  study  the  natural 
sciences  will  serve  as  a  basis  ;  that  language  for  ex- 
pression will  accompany  every  step  in  acquisition;  that 
the  mathematics  will  be  coordinated  with  the  concrete 
sciences ;  that  the  humanities  will  come  in  to  complete 
the  course  ;  and  that  language  as  a  science  will  be  rele- 
gated to  the  advanced  course. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PESTALOZZI. 

Schools  of  the  Olden  Teme. — Up  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  the  common  people  of  Europe  were  in  a 
state  of  abject  ignorance  in  regard  to  the  elements  gener- 
ally considered  as  belonging  to  education.  Reading  and 
writing  were  accomplishments  monopolized  by  the  higher 
classes,  and  by  no  means  universal  even  among  them. 
The  higher  education  was  in  the  control  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  was  administered  almost  exclusively  in  the 
interest  of  the  Church.  Common  schools,  in  which  the 
whole  body  of  the  people  had  a  rightful  participation, 
were  not  only  unknown,  but  an  idea  so  revolutionary  to 
the  existing  order  of  society  had  scarcely  ever  entered 
the  consciousness  of  the  most  advanced  thinkers. 

Effect  of  Printing  upon  Education. — The  invention 
of  printing,  and  the  circumstances  that  followed  the  great 
protest  against  authority,  resulted  in  a  wide  demand  for 
schools  in  which  reading  should  be  taught.  By  slow 
degrees  such  schools  were  established,  and  in  the  most 
enlightened  parts  of  Europe  they  became  quite  common. 

Care  of  the  Schools. — These  schools  naturally  fell 
into  the  care  of  the  priesthood,  in  both  Catholic  and 


PESTALOZZI.  117 

Protestant  countries,  in  part  from  the  force  of  habit, 
and  in  part  because  the  priests  constituted  the  only  class 
who  had  sufficient  education  to  manage  them.  The 
course  of  instruction  in  these  schools  embraced  the  al- 
phabet, the  elements  of  reading,  the  catechism,  the 
memorizing  of  a  certain  number  of  maxims  and  rules, 
and  sometimes  writing.  The  whole  of  this  instruction 
was  of  the  most  mechanical  kind,  and  no  attempt  was 
made  to  develop  the  understanding  of  the  pupil,  or  to 
give  him  that  knowledge  which  would  be  of  practical 
use  in  his  future  work. 

Teachers  Employed. — The  teachers  of  these  schools, 
apart  from  the  priests,  were  usually  selected  not  on  ac- 
count of  their  fitness  for  teaching,  but  because  they 
were  fit  for  nothing  else.  Soldiers  who  had  lost  a  limb 
in  battle,  persons  disabled  by  accident,  and  superannu- 
ated old  men  and  women  who  were  likely  to  become  a 
public  burden  as  paupers,  were  often  chosen  for  teachers. 
In  this  manner  ignorance  came  to  the  aid  of  routine, 
and  reduced  the  value  of  instruction  to  its  minimum. 

Value  of  Learning  to  Head. — To  a  peasantry  in  a 
state  of  vassalage,  who  have  no  interest  in  the  soil  they 
till,  whose  labor  is  at  the  mercy  of  others,  and  who  in 
consequence  often  suffer  for  the  common  necessaries  of 
life,  the  mere  ability  to  read  is  the  veriest  mockery. 
The  training  of  the  schools  afforded  no  such  intelligence 
as  leads  to  the  improvement  of  one's  condition  ;  and  the 
ability  to  understand  the  printed  page  waa  of  little  value 
where  there  were  no  books  to  read  and  no  leisure  to 
spend  in  reading.  Such  an  acquisition  is  poor  comfort 
to  a  person  destitute  of  clothing,  and  suffering  from 
hunger. 


118         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Schools  for  the  common  people,  wherever  established 
in  Europe,  were  substantially  in  the  condition  described, 
until  about  the  commencement  of  the  present  century. 
The  ruling  classes  seemed  to  regard  the  common  people 
as  proper  materials  for  soldiers  to  extend  conquests,  or  for 
subjects  to  be  taxed ;  and  the  last  idea  that  could  enter 
their  minds  was  that  these  people  were  human  beings, 
with  all  the  rights  and  inborn  capacities  of  other  human 
beings,  and  that,  therefore,  they  were  entitled  to  the 
best  education  which  the  age  could  give. 

Ideal  Schools. — Rousseau,  the  French  philosopher,  in 
some  of  his  speculations  concerning  man  and  his  destiny, 
gave  an  outline  of  an  ideal  state  of  society,  where  in- 
telligence and  justice  should  take  the  place  of  ignorance 
and  selfishness.  Prominent  among  the  philanthropic 
schemes  of  this  dreamy  philosopher  was  a  system  of 
universal  education,  by  which  every  one  could  obtain 
that  knowledge  which  would  be  of  most  worth  to  him 
in  bettering  his  own  condition,  and  in  contributing  to 
the  general  welfare  of  society. 

Pestalozzi's  Cakeek. — Johann  Heinrich  Pestalozzi 
was  then  a  young  man,  residing  in  his  native  city 
Zurich,  in  Switzerland.  His  attention  was  attracted  to 
these  writings,  and  they  produced  a  deep  impression 
upon  his  mind.  He  had  become  painfully  aware  of 
the  ignorance  and  degradation  of  the  common  people  of 
his  native  country,  and  the  speculations  of  Pousseau 
seemed  to  give  him  the  key  to  a  method  by  which  their 
condition  might  be  improved.  The  circumstances  of 
his  own  life  had  made  him  extremely  sensitive  to  the 
injustice  and  absurdity  of  the  divisions  of  society  into 


PESTALOZZI.  119 

castes,  which  gave  to  some  special  privileges,  and  with- 
held these  same  privileges  from  others.  The  impelling 
force  that  influenced  his  subsequent  action  was  more  a 
genuine  hatred  of  tyranny  and  a  belief  in  democracy 
than  any  consideration  concerning  the  nature  and  method 
of  education. 

PJiilanthropic  Views. — His  ideas  of  education  were 
forced  upon  him  in  his  endeavors  to  raise  the  condition 
of  the  common  people,  and  these  ideas  came  not  in  the 
shape  of  a  perfected  theory,  but  rather  as  the  result  of 
experiments  born  of  the  necessities  and  conditions  of 
the  hour.  His  special  work  grew  out  of  philanthropy 
rather  than  philosophy ;  but  on  this  account,  so  far  as  it 
conforms  to  philosophic  principle,  it  is  all  the  more 
valuable. 

The  Ideal  reduced  to  Practice. — The  educational 
problem  that  presented  itself  to  the  mind  of  Pestalozzi 
was,  whether  the  ideal  of  Rousseau  might  not  be  made 
real.  After  deliberating  upon  the  question,  he  resolved 
to  make  the  experiment.  He  first  ventured  to  write 
and  publish  short  essays  upon  the  subject.  Afterward, 
he  embodied  his  views  upon  home  education  in  a  story 
entitled  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude."  This  book  created 
a  great  sensation  throughout  Switzerland  and  Germany, 
and  the  author  at  once  found  himself  famous  as  a  liter- 
ary man. 

Experiments  at  Neuhof. — He  also  endeavored  to 
carry  his  theories  of  education  into  practice  by  estab 
li>hing  a  school  at  his  farm  at  Xeuhof.  At  this  school 
he  received  juvenile  delinquents  from  the  city  of  Berne, 
where  he  undertook  the  business  of  endeavoring  to 
eradicate  their  vicious  propensities  by  a  eourse  of  in- 


120  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

struction  and  moral  training.  This  experiment  was  tlie 
forerunner  of  the  modern  reform-school,  now  constitut- 
ing a  part  of  the  educational  system  in  nearly  all  civil- 
ized countries. 

The  scheme  proved  a  failure,  partly  from  his  want 
of  organizing  and  administrative  ability,  partly  from 
pecuniary  mismanagement,  and  partly  from  his  want  of 
experience  as  a  teacher.  The  failure  of  his  experiment 
left  him  nearly  bankrupt ;  and  at  the  age  of  fifty-three 
he  found  himself  without  profession,  without  money, 
and  without  employment.  Judged  by  the  ordinary 
standards  of  success,  his  life  so  far  was  a  failure. 

Condition  of  the  Country. — During  the  wars  that 
followed  the  French  Revolution,  Switzerland  was  the 
battle-field  of  the  powerful  surrounding  nations.  With 
little  or  no  interest  in  the  results  of  the  conflicts,  she 
was  made  to  suffer  more  than  either  of  the  contending 
parties.  Her  harvests  were  plundered,  her  houses  in- 
vaded, and,  in  some  of  the  cantons,  the  larger  part  of 
the  male  population  was  carried  away  by  the  invaders. 
Women  and  children  were  left  with  no  means  of  sus- 
tenance, and  without  shelter  for  their  heads. 

School  at  Stanz.— -In  1798,  the  little  canton  of  iSTid- 
walden,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Luzerne,  in- 
curred the  enmity  of  the  French,  and,  in  consequence, 
was  invaded  by  a  French  army ;  the  whole  country  was 
made  desolate,  and  every  village  except  the  little  ham- 
let of  Stanz  was  burned.  The  sufferings  of  the  house- 
less women  and  children  were  very  great,  and  measures 
of  relief  were  immediately  instituted  in  the  more  pros- 
perous cantons.  Here  was  an  opportunity  for  Pestalozzi, 
who  at  once  volunteered  to  go  to  Stanz  and  take  charge 


PESTALOZZI.  121 

of  the  children  "who  might  be  collected  there — the  phil- 
anthropic people  of  Berne  furnishing  the  means  neces- 
sary for  their  subsistence. 

Condition  of  the  School. — An  old  deserted  convent 
was  taken  for  the  use  of  the  school,  and  here  Pestalozzi 
found  one  hundred  homeless  and  almost  naked  children 
waiting  his  arrival.  Straightway,  with  the  means  at  his 
command,  he  prepared  a  kitchen,  dining-room,  and 
schoolroom.  A  large  upper  room  was  changed  into  a 
dormitory,  where  pupils  and  teachers  slept  together. 
With  no  means  to  buy  books  or  apparatus  of  any  kind, 
and  in  a  room  bare  of  everything  save  the  rough  benches, 
Pestalozzi  commenced  his  work  as  a  teacher.  Necessity, 
with  him,  literally  became  the  mother  of  invention. 
For  want  of  books,  the  lessons  were  necessarily  oral ; 
and  to  gratify  the  awakened  curiosity  of  the  children, 
recourse  was  had  to  everything  that  could  excite  an  in- 
terest or  aiford  instruction. 

Things  and  Representatives. — During  his  first  ex- 
perience in  teaching,  it  is  related  of  Pestalozzi  that, 
among  other  agencies,  he  made  extensive  use  of  pictures. 
One  day  he  had  occasion  to  refer  to  a  ladder,  but  the 
picture  required  for  illustration  was  mislaid,  and  could 
not  be  found.  Seeing  the  perplexity  of  the  teacher, 
one  of  the  boys  suggested  that  there  was  a  ladder  near 
the  door  which  might  be  used  in  place  of  the  picture. 
From  this  suggestion  the  idea  for  the  first  time  dawned 
upon  the  mind  of  Pestalozzi  that  the  things  themselves 
were  better  than  any  representatives  of  them — when  lo! 
object-teaching  was  born  into  the  world. 

Intellectual  Success. — The  success  of  the  school  at 
Stanz  was  so  marked  as  to  excite  attention  and  adniira- 
C 


122  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

tion.  It  was  found  that  the  children  were  coming  rap- 
idly to  understand  things,  and  that  the  attention  which 
they  bestowed  upon  objects  accelerated  rather  than  re- 
tarded their  progress  in  reading  and  writing.  They 
were  also  constantly  interested  in  their  work ;  and  study, 
which  before  had  been  an  onerous  task,  was  transf ormed 
into  a  delightful  recreation. 

Moral  Success. — The  healthy  intellectual  stimulus 
afforded,  together  with  the  peculiar  circumstances  and 
conditions  of  the  school,  gave  a  decided  impetus,  also, 
to  moral  instruction  ;  and  Pestalozzi  found  it  a  compara- 
tively easy  task  to  inculcate  those  principles  of  justice 
and  benevolence  which  he  considered  the  final  outcome 
of  all  true  education.  It  is  related  that  when  Altdorf, 
a  village  in  a  neighboring  canton,  was  consumed  by 
fire,  and  a  large  number  of  children  were  rendered 
houseless,  Pestalozzi  laid  the  case  before  the  school, 
when  the  pupils,  with  one  voice,  requested  him  to  take 
charge  of  these  children  also,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that,  by  so  doing,  they  themselves  would  be  obliged  to 
put  up  with  insufficient  rations  and  limited  accommo- 
dations. 

School  at  Burgdorf. — About  one  year  after  the 
establishment  of  the  school  at  Stanz,  the  canton  was  re- 
occupied  by  the  French  army,  and  the  school  was  turned 
out,  and  consequently  broken  up,  to  make  room  for  the 
soldiers.  Immediately  Pestalozzi  applied  for  employ- 
ment as  a  teacher,  and  was  sent  to  Burgdorf  as  an  as- 
sistant in  a  school  conducted  upon  the  old  routine  sys- 
tem. His  measures,  however,  were  so  revolutionary,  that 
the  principal  of  the  school  straightway  took  measures 
to  have  him  dismissed.     He  next  took  a  position  in  one 


PESTALOZZI.  123 

of  the  lowest  of  the  primary  schools,  at  that  time  con- 
ducted by  an  old  dame.  Here  his  success  was  so  strik- 
ing as  to  command  the  attention  of  the  authorities,  and, 
as  a  result,  secured  for  him  a  place  better  fitted  to  his 
powers.  In  connection  with  able  associates,  he  next 
opened  a  school  in  the  deserted  castle  at  Burgdorf,  when, 
for  the  first  time,  he  had  an  opportunity  for  a  thorough 
test  of  his  educational  theories.  This  school  continued 
for  two  years,  and  obtained  great  celebrity,  both  in 
Switzerland  and  Germany. 

School  at  Yverdon. — Owing  to  political  changes, 
however,  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  castle,  and  for  a 
time  the  school  was  suspended.  In  1803  it  was  n  es- 
tablished at  Yverdon,  on  Lake  Neufchatel,  where  it 
continued  twenty-two  years,  closing  in  1825,  two  years 
before  the  death  of  its  founder.  The  novelty  of  the 
teaching  at  Burgdorf  and  Yverdon  soon  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  principal  educators  of  Switzerland,  and 
the  school  became  more  famous  than  any  other  school 
of  its  time.  Special  students,  appointed  by  different 
governments,  and  volunteers  from  every  country  in  Eu- 
rope, flocked  to  Yverdon  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
new  methods;  and  by  these  students  the  principles  of 
Pestalozzi  were  earned  back  to  their  respective  conn- 
tries,  and  extensively  put  into  practice.  These  princi- 
ples at  once  obtained  a  stronger  foothold  in  Germany 
than  elsewhere;  but,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  they 
modified  the  educational  systems  of  the  whole  civilized 
world. 

Pestalozziak  Principles.— As  Pestalozzi  has  left 
no  written   code  or  authoritative  resume  of  his  prin- 


124  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  0^  TEACHING. 

ciples,  we  must  look  for  them  in  the  spirit  of  his  work, 
and  in  such  fragmentary  statements  as  we  find  scattered 
throughout  his  writings. 

Order  in  Mental  Growth. — The  first  and  most  fun- 
damental principle  in  all  his  work  is,  that  the  mental 
powers  are  unfolded  in  definite  order,  and  that  true  in- 
struction must  be  that  which  is  intelligently  adapted  to 
each  stage  of  mental  growth,  and  directly  tends  to  pro- 
mote the  next  step  of  development.  This  principle, 
almost  utterly  ignored  up  to  the  time  of  Pestalozzi,  is 
now  generally  admitted  by  educators,  and  is  progres- 
sively becoming  more  and  more  the  corner-stone  of  edu- 
cation. 

Home-Education. — Among  the  means  necessary  for 
elevating  the  common  people  in  intelligence  and  mo- 
rality, one  of  the  first  that  forced  itself  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  Pestalozzi  was  the  importance  and  necessity  of 
a  thorough  home-education.  Indeed,  in  the  develop- 
ment of  his  own  ideas  of  education,  this  feature  took 
precedence  of  all  others.  From  actual  observation,  he 
saw,  so  frequently  and  so  generally,  that  children  at 
homo  were  not  only  neglected  in  regard  to  their  phys- 
ical and  moral  needs,  but  that  their  naturally  right  in- 
stincts were  perverted,  and  their  whole  nature  demoral- 
ized, by  bad  examples  and  improper  training,  that  he 
concluded  that  all  effectual  efforts  at  reform  must  begin 
at  home. 

The  Influence  of  Mothers. — In  all  his  earlier  writ- 
ings, his  aim  seemed  to  be  to  impress  upon  mothers  the 
idea  that  they  alone  had  power,  through  their  influence 
at  home,  to  work  the  needed  reforms  in  society.  He 
showed  how  susceptible  children  at  an  early  age  are  to 


PESTALOZZI.  125 

good  influences,  and  in  what  manner  these  influences 
could  be  exercised  to  the  best  advantage.  The  mother 
has  almost  unlimited  power  over  the  child  for  the  first 
few  years  of  its  existence,  during  which  period  habits 
are  formed  which  go  far  to  control  action  through  life. 
It  is  all-important  that,  in  this  susceptible  and  formative 
period,  all  selfish  propensities  should  be  suppressed,  and 
all  good  impulses  stimulated.  Indeed,  neglect  or  mis- 
direction at  this  period  can  never  be  compensated  by 
subsequent  education.  Efforts  to  change  the  conduct 
of  adults,  who  have  grown  up  in  ignorance  and  witli 
slovenly  and  vicious  habits,  are  usually  entirely  wasted, 
or  the  results  produced  are  very  insignificant  when  com- 
pared with  the  efforts  put  forth. 

Mistakes  in  Application. — While  this  philosophy  in 
regard  to  the  importance  of  home-education  and  the  in- 
fluence of  mothers  was  correct,  Pestalozzi  soon  found 
that  he  had  made  a  mistake  in  its  application.  True 
home-education  can  only  be  given  by  mothers  who  have 
themselves  been  truly  educated.  "While  the  motherly 
instinct  may  be  relied  upon  as  sufficient  to  supply  the 
child  with  the  most  common  of  the  physical  necessities, 
in  all  mental  and  moral  work  the  mother  must  be  guided 
by  an  enlarged  intelligence.  The  love  for  the  child 
will  supply  the  motive,  but  this  love  must  be  supple- 
mented by  a  knowledge  of  what  constitutes  the  highest 
welfare  of  the  child,  and  what  means  are  best  adapted 
to  secure  this  welfare.  To  expect  such  results  from 
mothers  who  themselves  are  neglected  and  misdirected 
at  home,  and  who  have  no  opportunity  to  correct  their 
early  impressions  by  education,  would  be  absurd.  "  Do 
men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles  ?  " 


12G  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

Education  of  Mothers. — The  third  great  principle 
which  may  be  considered  as  Pestalozzian  is,  that  moth- 
ers should  be  educated.  In  consequence  of  the  momen- 
tous results  involved,  this  education  should  be  as  ex- 
tended and  complete  as  possible.  Since  the  work  of  the 
mother  is  to  shape  the  future  destiny  of  the  child,  the 
whole  well-being  of  society  depends  upon  the  intelli- 
gence with  which  this  work  is  executed.  The  work  in- 
volves principles  of  the  most  complex  character  pertain- 
ing to  mental  phenomena  and  to  human  relations ;  and 
the  education  of  the  mother  must  of  necessity  be  incom- 
plete unless  it  includes  the  facts  upon  which  these  prin- 
ciples rest.  This  view  of  the  nature  of  woman's  work, 
and  of  the  preparatory  culture  necessary  to  the  highest 
performance  of  that  work,  sets  aside  at  once  and  forever 
all  those  contracted  views  of  woman's  sphere  and  edu- 
cation which  are  so  frequently  urged  with  an  air  of 
great  profundity  and  wisdom. 

Study  of  Children. — The  next  important  principle 
of  Pestalozzi  is,  that  the  teacher  should  make  the  child 
the  subject1  of  profound  and  careful  study.  While  the 
general  principles  of  mental  philosophy  derived  from 
the  aggregate  study  of  mind  will  serve  as  a  guide  to 
general  courses  of  instruction,  a  special  study  of  the 
peculiarities  of  each  child  is  necessary  as  a  guide  to  the 
intelligent  adaptation  of  general  means  to  particular 
cases.  The  important  changes  which  are  now  going  on 
in  regard  to  primary  instruction  may  be  directly  traced 
to  the  application  of  this  principle. 

Training  of  Imbeciles. — In  no  other  department  of 
instruction  is  the  necessity  of  the  study  of  each  individ- 
ual so  apparent  as  in  the  education  of  imbeciles.     The 


TESTALOZZI.  127 

minds  of  these  unfortunates  differ  from  those  of  ordi- 
nary children  chiefly  in  being  more  sluggish  in  action. 
All  the  ordinary  appliances  of  education  fail  to  arouse 
the  dormant  powers  into  activity.  By  a  careful  series 
of  experiments,  and  by  patient  investigation  which  has 
continued  through  years,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
agencies  necessary  to  be  used  in  these  cases  differ  from 
ordinary  instruction,  principally  in  the  length  of  each 
Btep,  and  in  the  number  of  times  each  idea  must  be  re- 
peated. The  results  of  these  experiments  have  shown 
that  imbeciles  usually  are  susceptible  of  improvement ; 
and  they  have  also  determined,  with  a  degree  of  accu- 
racy before  unknown,  the  successive  steps  necessary  in 
all  primary  instruction. 

Bases  of  JEd^ericnee. — The  fifth  principle  is,  that 
all  school-work  should  be  founded  upon  the  actual  expe- 
rience of  the  child.  To  this  end  the  exercises  of  the 
schoolroom  should  conform  as  much  as  possible  to  mat- 
ters which  interest  the  child  out  of  school,  and  all  in- 
struction given  should  start  from  that  which  is  already 
possessed.  Much  of  the  earliest  instructioD  of  the  school 
will  he  to  enlarge  this  experience  by  making  vague  notions 
more  definite,  and  by  showing  relations  between  things 
which  were  before  undiscovered.  These  exercises  are 
also  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject— a  result  which  Pcstalozzi  considered  of  cardinal 
importance. 

()Lj,t'f-T>  <><■}» i„tj. — In  all  the  works  of  the  great  re- 
former there  is  nothing  more  distinctly  shown  than  that 
the  systematic  study  of  things  should  precede  thai  of 
books.  In  popular  estimation  this  is  the  most  distinctive 
Pestaloz/.ian  principle  of  all.     That  the  observing  powers 


128  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

should  be  trained  to  perceive  by  exercise  upon  real  ob- 
jects, and  that  the  office  of  books  is  to  supplement  the 
knowledge  gained  by  personal  experience,  may  be  gath- 
ered not  only  from  the  writings  of  this  author,  but  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  schools  at  Burgdorf  and  Yver- 
don  were  conducted,  and  from  the  exercises  of  all  the 
schools  which  have  since  been  founded  upon  these 
models. 

In  another  chapter  we  have  shown  the  necessity  of 
object-teaching,  and  the  place  such  teaching  should  oc- 
cupy in  a  school  course. 

Practical  Objections. — Pestalozzi  and  his  followers 
have  been  censured  for  having  made  too  much  of  per- 
sonal experience,  and  of  having  given  too  much  promi- 
nence to  object-teaching.  There  is,  probably,  an  ele- 
ment of  truth  in  this  criticism,  but  the  mistake  was  al- 
most a  necessary  consequence  of  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  and  was  but  the  exaggeration  of  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  From  the  system  which  ignored  expe- 
rience and  made  little  or  no  account  of  understanding 
the  subject,  the  reaction  in  favor  of  rational  methods 
was  violent.  The  rote-system  was  exploded ;  and  as  this 
system  was  founded  upon  books  exclusively,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  books  should  have  been  regarded  as  part 
of  the  discarded  system,  and  that  they  should  have  been 
undervalued  in  the  revision  of  the  course  of  instruction 
which  followed.  To  personal  experience,  which  is  in- 
dispensable as  forming  the  basis  of  all  knowledge,  was 
assigned  too  high  a  place,  and  too  little  importance  was 
attached  to  the  knowledge  which  comes  from  the  expe- 
rience of  others.  These  mistakes,  incidental  to  all  im- 
provements in  educational  processes,  are  corrected  by 


PESTALOZZI.  129 

larger  experiences,  while  the  good  resulting  from  the 
change  remains  as  a  permanent  acquisition  to  the  means 
of  promoting  human  welfare. 

Conduct  and  Character. — One  of  the  ideas  of  edu- 
cation Pestalozzi  made  most  prominent  was,  that  all  ex- 
ercises should  tend  to  promote  good  conduct  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil,  and  that  education  was  a  failure  unless  it 
culminated  in  the  formation  of  habits  of  good  conduct. 
Intelligence  he  deemed  valuable  chiefly  as  it  promoted 
morality.  In  his  writings  and  practice  he  constantly 
enforced  these  ideas.  The  manner  of  conducting  school 
exercises  so  as  to  lead  to  good  conduct — a  method  directly 
resulting  from  Pestalozzi's  principles — will  be  considered 
in  the  chapter  upon  Moral  Teaching. 

Growth  of  the  System. — Many  of  the  experiments 
instituted  by  Pestalozzi  and  his  disciples,  to  put  these 
principles  in  practice,  have  proved  failures.  The  whole 
system  is  so  exactly  opposite  to  the  old,  in  its  aim  and 
methods,  that  it  has  been  difficult  at  once  to  determine 
the  means  that  shall  best  express  and  exemplify  the  new 
ideas.  Teachers  educated  under  the  old  methods  find 
it  exceedingly  hard  to  overcome  their  former  habits  ;  and 
although  they  may  be  convinced  in  theory,  their  practice 
changes  slowly.  But  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees 
the  new  ideas  obtain  a  foothold  and  are  consolidated  into 
system,  resulting  finally  in  a  complete  revolution,  which 
will  substitute  intelligent  investigation  for  mechanical 
routine  in  every  field  of  human  thought  and  endeavor. 


CHAPTEE  Till. 

FROEBEL  AND   THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

Fkttit  of  Pestalozzi's  Pklnclples. — The  impulse 
which  the  works  and  experiments  of  Pestalozzi  gave  to 
education  did  not  expend  itself  in  mere  imitation.  The 
principles  enunciated  needed  verification,  and,  in  the 
broad  field  of  education,  they  were  to  be  applied  in 
numberless  ways,  of  which  their  author  was  probably 
entirely  unconscious.  This  necessity  gave  rise  to  new 
experiments,  and  in  some  cases  led  to  new  and  impor- 
tant discoveries. 

Education  through  Work. — Among  the  ideas  first 
promulgated  by  Pestalozzi  was  that  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  true  education  might  be  obtained  through 
work,  and  that  kind  of  work  which  constitutes  the  ordi- 
nary vocation  of  the  individual.  In  his  first  experi- 
ments at  ISTeuhof  with  his  juvenile  criminals,  he  en- 
deavored to  carry  this  idea  into  practical  execution,  but 
without  success.  In  his  subsequent  experiments,  from 
the  condition  and  circumstances  of  his  school,  this  idea 
was  subordinated  to  others  which  were  forced  upon  his 
attention,  and  was  never  fully  developed. 

Agricultural  Schools. —  De  Fellenberg,  a  contem- 


FROEBEL   AND   TIIE   KINDERGARTEN".  131 

porary  and  friend  of  Pestalozzi,  deeply  impressed  with 
this  idea,  instituted  a  series  of  experiments  which  re- 
sulted in  his  establishing  a  school  of  agriculture,  where 
the  work  of  the  farm  was  performed  by  the  students 
while  attending  to  their  studies.  The  work  itself  was 
made  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  the  means  of  improve- 
ment, and  the  pupils  left  the  school  not  only  fully  in- 
structed in  the  various  branches  of  study,  but  with  a 
minute  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  one  or  more 
of  the  industrial  occupations,  and,  above  all,  with  mus- 
cles trained  to  the  performance  of  the  work  necessary 
to  be  done  in  the  wide  field  of  industry. 

The  success  of  De  Fellenberg  in  his  little  Swiss  farm 
was  so  complete,  that  his  plans  were  extensively  copied 
in  France  and  Germany,  and  afterward  in  the  other 
countries  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States.  The 
agricultural  schools  now  supported  by  most  of  the  civ- 
ilized nations  arc  the  direct  offspring  of  De  Fellenberg's 
experiments  ;  and  the  technical  and  trade  schools  have 
indirectly  proceeded  from  the  same  source. 

Limitation  of  these  /Schools. — In  these  agricultural, 
technical,  and  trade  schools,  the  principle  of  physical 
activity  was  made  practical,  but  the  work  was  confined 
chiefly  to  the  higher  schools.  The  German  trade 
schools  take  pupils  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  or  after 
they  have  mastered  the  seven  years'  primary  course. 
Most  of  the  technical  schools  did  not  receive  pupils  un- 
til some  years  later. 

The  Woes  of  Feqebel. — It  was  left  to  Froebel,  an 
eminent  German  teacher,  to  apply  the  same  principle 
to  the  training  of  children.     From  personal  observation 


132         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIILVG. 

and  study,  lie  became  thoroughly  convinced  that  one  of 
the  principal  causes  of  evil  conduct  was  the  wrong  di- 
rection or  bias  given  to  the  mind  of  the  child  in  its  ear- 
liest years.  By  a  vicious  system  of  home  instruction, 
afterwards  supplemented  by  an  equally  mischievous 
system  of  school-training,  he  saw  that  natural  and  inno- 
cent instincts  and  inclinations  were  constantly  thwarted, 
and  the  mind  forced  out  of  the  path  which  Nature 
pointed  out  as  the  most  direct  course  to  excellence,  and 
into  the  way  sanctioned  by  fashion,  custom,  or  caprice. 
As  a  result  of  this  false  education,  he  saw  natural  ac- 
tivities smothered  at  their  birth,  and  possibilities  of  use- 
ful life  materially  diminished. 

Philanthropic  Motives. — As  in  the  case  of  Pesta- 
lozzi,  the  study  and  experiments  of  Froebel  seemed  to 
spring  from  an  intense  desire  to  benefit  the  human  race, 
and  from  the  conviction  that  measures  of  reform  must 
commence  while  the  mind  is  in  its  most  plastic  state. 
He  had  but  little  faith  in  measures  designed  to  improve 
and  reform  those  who  had  grown  to  maturity  in  igno- 
rance, and  with  whom  ill-conduct  had  become  a  rigid 
habit. 

Froebel  accepted  the  principles  laid  down  by  Pesta- 
lozzi  without  hesitation.  These  principles,  he  saw, 
were  designed  to  bring  instruction  into  harmony  with 
Nature,  and  he  set  about  devising  means  by  which  such 
harmony  could  be  fully  realized.  He  confined  his  ex- 
periments largely  to  young  children,  and  for  their  in- 
struction he  devised  the  methods  now  known  as  the 
kindergarten  system. 

Development  of  the  Kindergarten. — The  word  kin- 
dergarten literally  means  a  place  where  children  are 


FROEBEL   AND   TOE   KINDERGARTEN".  133 

cultivated.  Froebers  plan  was  to  collect  a  number  of 
young  children  and  place  them  in  such  conditions  that 
their  own  free  and  spontaneous  acts  would,  in  a  large 
measure,  contribute  to  their  full  development.  The 
teacher's  work  was  simply  direction — taking  care  that 
the  natural  activities  of  the  child  always  had  an  oppor- 
tunity for  free  expression,  and  in  the  proper  direction. 

Froebel's  success  was  so  great,  that  a  large  number 
of  teachers  became  converted  to  his  methods,  and  kin- 
dergartens were  established  not  only  throughout  Ger- 
many, but  they  have  been  introduced  extensively  into 
most  of  the  civilized  countries  of  the  world. 

Obscurity  of  Expression. — Like  many  other  reform- 
ers and  originators  of  great  schemes,  Froebel  was  far 
from  being  clear  in  the  enunciation  of  the  principles 
upon  which  his  work  was  founded.  His  insight  into 
the  nature  of  children,  and  his  ability  to  provide  the 
appliances  necessary  for  each  step  of  their  advancement, 
were  far  in  advance  of  his  ability  to  formulate  his  work 
upon  a  philosophic  basis  and  give  it  full  expression.  He 
seemed  also  to  have  imbibed,  at  an  early  period,  certain 
mystical  metaphysical  notions,  which  gave  a  bias  to  his 
thinking,  and  caused  him  to  clothe  his  thoughts  in  ob- 
scure phraseology. 

Kindergarten  Principles. — From  the  spirit  of  his 
work,  and  from  the  practices  common  to  kindergartens 
generally,  we  find  that  the  following  principles  servo  u 
a  guide  to  this  system  of  instruction: 

Inherited  Powers  and  Tendencies. — Every  child  is 
born  with  capacities  and  traits  which  are  inherited  from 
its   ancestry.     These   traits   give   general   direction  to 


134:  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF   TEACHING. 

thought  and  conduct,  but  they  may  be  materially 
changed  by  education.  A  naturally  good  disposition 
may  be  ruined  by  a  false  system  of  education,  while 
evil  traits  may  be  nearly,  or  quite,  overcome  by  a  ju- 
dicious education.  The  education  of  one  generation 
appears  as  an  inherited  tendency  in  the  next. 

This  principle  completely  overthrows  that  philoso- 
phy which  insists  that  the  mind  is  a  blank  paper  upon 
which  the  educator  may  write  what  he  pleases ;  and  it 
is  equally  fatal  to  the  opposite  philosophy,  that  education 
can  do  little  or  nothing  toward  changing  natural  tenden- 
cies. Froebel  shows  that  the  truth  lies  between  these 
extremes,  and  that  human  progress  depends  upon  the 
fact  that  inherited  traits  may  be  changed  by  education, 
and  that  the  results  of  this  education  may,  in  turn,  be 
transmitted  by  inheritance.  Examples  of  the  inherit- 
ance of  qualities  are  seen  in  the  history  of  every  nation, 
and  of  nearly  every  family.  The  successive  generations 
of  the  Hebrews  were  always  noted  fpr  their  deep  re- 
ligious fervor,  the  Greeks  for  their  love  of  beauty,  and 
the  Romans  for  their  power  of  social  organization.  Per- 
sonal peculiarities,  in  like  manner,  are  transmitted  in 
families.  Through  successive  generations  in  the  same 
family  line,  we  find  a  general  love  of  learning ;  in 
another,  a  love  of  gain  ;  and  in  still  another,  a  general 
indolence,  which  prevents  either  physical  or  mental  im- 
provement. In  intellectual  families,  the  form  of  scholar- 
ship may,  in  like  manner,  be  transmitted — one  showing 
a  taste  for  the  classics,  another  for  natural  history  and 
kindred  branches. 

Education  should  Commence  Early. — Education 
should  begin  at  the  earliest  period  of  conscious  existence. 


FROEBEL  AND   TIIE   KINDERGARTEN*.  135 

Everything  that  can  make  an  impression  upon  the  senses 
of  the  child,  whether  in  the  form  of  visible  objects  or 
tones  of  voice,  becomes  of  importance  as  educational  in- 
fluences. The  mother  at  home,  and  the  teacher  at  school, 
should  so  arrange  these  objects  that  the  impressions 
conveyed  will  exactly  respond  to  the  power  of  the 
child  most  active  at  the  time,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
each  in  its  time  will  excite  the  deepest  interest  and  leave 
the  most  permanent  impression. 

Early  impressions  are  most  durable,  and  many  a  man 
has  tried  in  vain  to  overcome  evil  habits  contracted  in 
childhood.  This  is  especially  true  in  regard  to  habits 
of  speech.  Again,  by  a  proper  attention  to  the  char- 
acter and  order  of  the  impressions  made  upon  the  mind 
of  the  child,  a  large  amount  of  knowledge  can  be  gained 
incidentally  and  unconsciously,  thereby  saving  the  time 
and  effort  which  would  be  needed  in  acquiring  the  same 
knowledge  at  a  later  period.  This  early  education,  how- 
ever, is  possible  only  through  the  efforts  of  thoroughly 
educated  motherland  all  that  teachers  can  do  is  to  sup- 
plement the  instruction  commenced  in  the  nursery. 

In  regard  to  this  subject.  Herbert  Spencer 
•  Whoever  has  watched  with  any  discernment  the  wide- 
eyed  gaze  of  the  infant  at  surrounding  objects,  knows 
very  well  that  education  does  begin  thus  early,  whether 
we  intend  it  or  not;  and  that  these  fingerings  and  Buck- 
ings of  everything  it  can  lay  hold  of,  these  open- 
mouthed  listenings  to  every  sound,  are  the  first  steps  in 
the  series  which  ends  in  the  discovery  of  unseen  planets, 
the  invention  of  calculating  engines,  the  production  of 
great  paintings,  or  the  composition  of  symphonies  and 
operas.     The  activity  of  the  faculties  from  the  first  be- 


136         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

ing  spontaneous  and  inevitable,  the  question  is,  whether 
we  shall  supply  in  due  variety  the  materials  on  which 
they  may  exercise  themselves ;  and  to  the  question  so 
put,  none  but  an  affirmative  answer  can  be  given." 

Education  based  on  Self -Activity. — The  educa- 
tion of  children  should  be  based  upon  self -activity . 
The  needs  of  every  child  give  rise  to  desires,  and  the 
desires  to  activities  of  some  kind.  A  philosophic  sys- 
tem of  education  will  look  through  these  activities  to 
the  needs  which  they  represent,  and  will  so  direct  them 
that,  while  they  excite  present  interest  and  gratify  pres- 
ent desire,  they  will  also  contribute  to  intellectual  and 
moral  growth  and  to  the  future  and  permanent  well- 
being  of  the  child. 

The  lowest  manifestations  of  activity  are  those  of 
mere  physical  motion ;  but  these  are  necessary  to  secure 
that  control  over  the  muscles  which  is  requisite  to  self- 
support  and  self -protection,  and  which  must  precede  in- 
tellectual growth.  The  curiosity  of  children,  manifested 
in  their  desire  to  handle  objects,  to  open  boxes  and 
drawers,  and  to  break  playthings,  is  but  an  indication  of 
their  endeavor  to  convert  vague  and  unsatisfactory  no- 
tions into  distinct  ideas.  De  Fellenberg  says :  "  Expe- 
rience has  taught  me  that  indolence  in  young  persons  is 
so  directly  opposite  to  their  natural  disposition  to  activ- 
ity, that,  unless  it  is  the  consequence  of  a  bad  educa- 
tion, it  is  almost  immediately  connected  with  some  con- 
stitutional defect." 

Spontaneous  Activity,  or  Play. — The  child  must  be 
left  free  to  show  its  activities  and  express  its  desires. 
This  freedom  is  best  manifested  in  play,  which  is  free 
activity  gratifying  desires,  and,  when  not  perverted,  the 


FROEBEL  AND  TOE  KINDERGARTEN'.       137 

instinctive  and  unconscious  manner  in  which  well-being 
is  promoted.  It  also  includes  the  first  deeds  of  the 
child,  in  endeavoring  to  supply  its  own  needs  and  to 
give  pleasure  to  others. 

Play,  which  has  been  defined  as  the  poetry  of  child- 
hood, may  always  be  considered  as  an  activity  which,  in 
some  way,  ministers  to  needs,  and  it  is  a  guide  to  the 
teacher  in  determining  what  are  the  needs  that  require 
the  most  attention  at  the  time.  It  is  also  a  potent 
force  to  be  used  in  the  work  of  education.  But,  to  this 
end,  the  plays  must  be  so  arranged  and  systematized 
that  the  child  will  always  find  the  variety  of  nature,  and 
each  play  in  its  turn  will  be  instrumental  in  furnishing 
him  with  new  ideas,  and  leading  him  to  higher  activities. 

School  Exercises  should  give  Pleasure. — Whatever 
gives  pleasure  to  children  generally  and  at  all  times,  al- 
ways serves  to  promote  their  development  in  some  way. 
This  statement  is  not  only  the  enunciation  of  a  great 
truth,  but  one  entirely  antagonistic  to  the  old  system  of 
education,  which  held  that  study  was  valuable  in  pro- 
portion as  it  was  distasteful,  and  that  culture  was  to  be 
sought  in  thwarting,  rather  than  in  gratifying,  natural 
inclinations. 

The  converse  of  this  proposition  is  also  true.  What- 
ever is  distasteful  to  children  generally,  and  whatever  is 
performed  as  mere  task-work,  is  of  but  little  worth  in 
promoting  the  true  development  of  the  child.  Much 
of  the  work  which  forma  the  staple  of  school  instruc- 
tion at  the  present  day  is  of  this  character.  Reading- 
lessons  that  children  cannot  comprehend  ;  the  memo- 
rizing of  the  words  of  a  text-book  ;  the  beginning  of  a 
subject  by  learning  definitions  instead  of  facts;  the  pre- 


138  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

mature  study  of  grammar ;  the  reasoning  processes  of 
mental  arithmetic  at  too  early  a  period  ;  the  spelling  and 
denning  of  words  largely  in  advance  of  their  use — all 
illustrate  this  distasteful  work,  and  all  are  examples  of 
waste  both  of  time  and  effort. 

Caution. — This  proposition,  however,  must  not  be 
taken  as  meaning  that  all  desires  of  children  are  to  be 
gratified,  or  that  such  desires  are  always  prompted  by 
real  needs.  A  great  variety  of  unnecessary  desires  may 
arise  from  inheritance,  or  from  false  impressions  made 
very  early  in  life.  It  is  only  when  wTide  investigations 
are  made,  extending  over  considerable  time,  that  teach- 
ers can  distinguish  unerringly  between  the  manifesta- 
tions of  spurious  and  real  needs. 

Physical  and  Mental  Activity  combined. — Educa- 
tion, as  much  as  possible,  should  connect  every  step  of 
instruction  with  some  kind  of  bodily  activity.  As  the 
hand  is  the  chief  instrument  of  work,  it  should  be 
specially  trained  to  perform  quickly  and  accurately  all 
the  motions  needed  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  This 
training  of  the  hand  to  do,  while  training  the  mind  to 
think,  is  one  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the 
kindergarten  system.  Indeed,  it  is  beginning  to  be  ap- 
parent that  the  most  effective  way  to  produce  the  think- 
ing is  through  work  actually  performed  by  the  hand — 
the  case  being  analogous  to  that  of  getting  the  use  of 
tools  by  the  performance  of  real  work  with  the  tools, 
rather  than  by  the  study  of  the  tools  themselves.  In 
another  respect,  this  training  of  the  hand  is  of  immense 
benefit  in  mental  development.  The  mind  thinks,  and 
the  will  executes.  As  the  mind  makes  use  of  the  brain 
for  thinking,  the  brain  must  be  trained  to  perform  its 


FROEBEL  AND   THE  KINDERGARTEN.  139 

function  in  the  must  effective  manner  possible ;  and  as 
the  will  makes  extensive  use  of  the  hand  in  executing, 
the  hand  must  he  trained  to  execute  the  mandate  of  the 
will  in  the  most  effective  manner  possible. 

The  effect  of  this  training  of  the  hand  is,  first,  to 
make  the  mental  impressions  deeper  and  more  lasting ; 
secondly,  to  greatly  increase  the  interest  of  every  sub- 
ject by  the  discovery  of  relations  which  would  other- 
wise be  undiscovered;  and  thirdly,  by  bringing  .the 
hand  under  such  perfect  control,  that  in  all  subsequent 
time  it  will  lie  immediately  and  effectually  responsive 
to  the  will. 

The  means  taken  for  this  training  are  the  successive 
use  of  objects,  which  the  pupil  not  only  sees  but  han- 
dles ;  the  use  of  blocks  in  building,  accompanied  by  in- 
struction in  regard  to  the  methods  of  building ;  play  in 
sand,  and  modeling  in  clay  with  purpose  in  view  ;  draw- 
ing, both  inventive  and  imitative;  and  the  gradual  use 
of  mechanical  tools  that  arc  needed  in  the  various  occu- 
pations. 

Harmonious  Development  of  all  the  Powers. — The 
next  fundamental  principle  of  Froebel  is,  that  the  whole 
nature  of  the  child  needs  instruction  and  training  from 
the  very  first.  While  he  fully  recognizes  the  impor- 
tance of  order  and  time  in  educational  processes,  he  claims 
that  a  symmetrical  and  harmonious  development  of  all 
the  powers  demands  that  each  one  shall  receive  attention 
in  proportion  to  its  present  activity,  and  in  such  a  nian- 
im  r  as  to  promote  its  normal  growth. 

The  Schools  demanded  by  thesi  Principles. — The 
system  of  education  which  is  devised  to  carry  this  prin- 
ciple into  practice  must  provide  for  physical  growth  and 


140         PRINCIPLES   AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

well-being,  by  the  careful  training  of  every  muscle  in 
the  body,  and  the  special  training  of  the  hand  ;  for  the 
gradual  development  of  the  mental  faculties  in  the  order 
pointed  out  by  Pestalozzi ;  for  moral  culture,  by  all  pos- 
sible incentives  to  well-doing ;  and  for  aesthetic  culture, 
which  shall  develop  taste  and  lead  to  an  appreciation 
and  creation  of  the  beautiful.  The  final  outcome  of 
this  fourfold  system  is  the  full  possession  of  physical 
health  and  strength,  and  a  distinct  recognition  of  the 
true,  the  good,  and  the  beautiful,  as  guiding  our  actions 
and  as  completing  our  lives. 

Practical,  Kindergarten  Work.  —  Kindergarten 
instruction  commences  at  the  age  of  from  three  to  five 
years.  The  children  are  brought  together  in  a  pleasant 
room,  where  are  collected  the  appliances  necessary  for  all 
their  varied  plays.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  objects 
are  not  in  such  profusion  as  to  distract  attention  and  pro- 
duce uneasiness.  In  FroebeFs  opinion,  nothing  can  be 
more  fatal  to  intellectual  stimulus  than  the  great  quanti- 
ty of  toy-rubbish  with  which  children  are  often  supplied. 

The  kind  of  play  in  which  each  pupil  engages  is  de- 
termined by  his  own  inclination,  somewhat  guided  by 
the  teacher. 

The  method  of  play  is  suggested  by  the  teacher,  and 
the  play  is  so  controlled  that  it  teaches  an  important  les- 
son. In  this  way,  literally,  all  play  becomes  work,  and 
all  work  becomes  play. 

Original  Work. — The  work  is  so  conducted,  also, 
that  the  teacher  tells  but  little,  leaving  the  pupil  to  dis- 
cover the  needed  truth,  and  so  leading  to  the  develop- 
ment of  creative  energy.     This  last  result  is  obtained 


FROEBEL  AND  THE  KINDERGARTEN.       141 

largely  through  the  process  of  inventive  drawing,  and 
the  hand-work  in  which  the  child  is  constantly  engaged. 

Singing. — In  the  kindergarten,  singing  is  one  of  the 
conspicuous  agencies  used  in  the  promotion  of  aesthetic 
culture,  the  rhythm  of  sound  and  motion  being  consid- 
ered of  prime  importance.  The  songs  selected,  both  in 
regard  to  their  words  and  their  music,  are  simple,  and 
such  as  the  experience  of  the  world  has  shown  to  be  of 
interest  to  children.  The  delight  of  children  in  the 
melodies  of  Mother  Goose  affords  a  key  to  the  nature 
of  the  songs  which  are  best  adapted  to  the  kindergarten 
methods. 

"Playing  in  the  Dirt."1 — The  love  which  children 
have  for  playing  in  the  sand  is  turned  to  good  account 
in  the  kindergarten  in  the  teaching  of  form  and  of  quan- 
tity ;  and  their  love  for  making  "  little  dirt-pies "  is 
directed  to  systematic  modeling  in  clay.  There  is  no 
manifestation  of  childish  interest  that  is  not  or  may  not 
be  made  profitable  in  devising  systems  of  instruction. 

The  Law  of  Order. — In  the  world  of  mind  and  mat- 
ter Froebel  saw  the  evidences  of  infinite  order,  which 
must  be  obeyed  in  all  processes  of  instruction.  In  the 
language  of  one  of  his  most  distinguished  disciples,  "  he 
made  the  eternal  archetypes  of  Nature  the  playthings 
of  childhood,  and  the  mutual  relations  and  combinations 
which  Nature  employs  in  her  secret  workshop,  the 
child's  laws  and  rules  of  play." 

Study  of  the  System. — The  study  of  the  details  of 
the  kindergarten  system  cannot  fail  of  being  a  benefit 
to  every  teacher.  Although  the  work  as  a  whole  may 
not  be  adapted  to  the  condition  and  circumstances  of 
the  community  where  he  is  engaged,  the  full  elucida- 


142         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

tion  of  the  methods  employed  are  suggestive  of  a  thou- 
sand expedients  calculated  to  interest  and  improve 
almost  any  grade  of  schools.  By  the  study  of  these 
methods,  also,  the  principles  upon  which  they  are  found- 
ed are  much  more  readily  understood  and  appreciated. 
This  desirable  information  will  be  found  in  any  of  the 
kindergarten  manuals  which  are  published  in  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  Kindergarten  at  St.  Louis. — The  kindergarten 
system  has  been  more  thoroughly  tried  at  St.  Louis  than 
elsewhere  in  this  country.  Under  the  intelligent  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  William  T.  Hams,  the  philosophic  superin- 
tendent of  the  city  schools,  the  experiment  has  been 
made  of  connecting  kindergarten  instruction  with  the 
public  schools.  This  experiment  raised  many  questions 
concerning  the  system  itself,  and  the  modifications  it 
needs  to  adapt  itself  to  the  necessities  of  American 
schools.  From  a  late  report  of  Mr.  Harris  we  make  the 
following  extract : 

Necessity  of  Study  and  Experiment. — "While  it  is 
probable  that  the  kindergarten  may  require  modifica- 
tions to  adapt  it  to  American  educational  needs,  it  is  not 
at  all  certain  wherein  or  how  much,  until  its  aims  and 
methods  have  been  studied,  and  practical  experiments 
have  been  instituted.  It  may  be  that  only  slight  changes 
are  required  to  adapt  it  to  our  system — changes  relating 
to  arrangements  of  furniture,  length  of  session,  age  of  ad- 
mission, etc.  It  may  be  that  modifications  of  the  inner 
nature  of  the  system — its  psychological  idea — may  be 
required  to  adapt  it  to  American  wants.  Experiment 
will  doubtless  evolve,  one  after  the  other,  the  practical 
and  theoretical  problems,  and  discover  the  best  solutions. 


FROEBEL   AND   TIIE   KINDERGARTEN*.  143 

Scope  of  Education. — "  It  is  conceded  that  edueat  ion 
includes  very  much  more  than  the  province  of  the 
school.  The  stage  of  nurture  includes  first  the  physical 
care  of  the  child  and  the  training  of  body  ;  next  the 
formation  of  habits  in  harmony  with  the  customs  and 
usages  of  civilized  life.  His  eating  and  drinking,  and 
other  personal  habitB,  must  be  those  of  humanity,  and 
not  those  of  natural  impulse — those  of  animals.  From 
the  first  the  child  begins  to  use  Ins  senses  as  instruments 
for  obtaining  knowledge.  His  growing  power  is  watched 
anxiously  by  the  family,  and  his  ell'orts  are  stimulated 
and  encouraged.  He  acquires,  in  this  way,  a  most  im- 
portant stock  of  theoretical  ideas,  as  well  as  command 
of  the  use  of  his  senses  and  of  language,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  instruments,  before  he  comes  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  school. 

Scope  of  the  Kindergarten. — u  The  kindergarten 
proposes  to  invade  this  realm  of  nurture  ;  to  Bystemize 
it,  from  the  cradle  onward  to  the  school.  The  mother 
shall  substitute  conscious,  rational  action  for  whim  and 
caprice  in  the  management  of  her  child,  and  BhaU  watch 
over  the  orderly  development  of  the  faculties  of  her 

child,  as  a  scientific  gardener  watches  over  the  develop- 
ment of  plants  in  his  garden.  Froebel  proposed  to  have 
this  realm  of  nurture  transformed  into  systematic  cult' 
nre,  embracing  provinces — physical,  mental,  and  moral. 
He  proposed  to  do  this  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  all 
the  sweetness  of  childhood,  and  to  stimulate  and  encour- 
age its  spontaneity. 

Delicate  Adjustments. — >-  Here  was  the  great  point 
in  Froebel's  BUCCeSS.  He  overcame  .seeming  imposs] 
bilities,  by  adopting  a    method    which   could    he   put  in 


144  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

practice  without  injury  to  the  spontaneity  of  childhood, 
while  it  really  disciplined  the  child's  will  into  rational 
forms.  This  delicate  point  is  at  once  the  greatest  merit 
of  Froebel,  and  the  ground  of  the  greatest  danger  for 
those  who  attempt  to  carry  it  out  in  practice.  It  is  still 
more  dangerous  for  those  who  attempt  to  modify  Froe- 
bel and  naturalize  it  in  other  countries.  Lacking  a  full 
insight  into  the  problem,  and  consequently  misunder- 
standing Froebel's  intentions,  in  the  order  and  make-up 
of  his  gifts,  it  frequently  happens  that  modifications  are 
proposed  which  utterly  lack  the  delicate  adjustment  of 
Froebel.  If  carried  out,  they  would  permanently  injure 
the  development  of  individuality  in  the  child,  and  pro- 
duce a  stunted  character.  Froebel  himself  goes  almost 
to  the  edge  of  this  matter :  it  is  easy  to  go  over  the  edge. 
Philosophy  Involved. — "  Momentous  questions  must 
be  settled  in  psychology  before  one  can  fully  appreciate 
how  wisely  Froebel  has  planned,  or  how  dangerous  it  is 
for  his  followers  to  depart  from  his  footsteps  without  a 
full  insight  into  the  subject.  There  are  deeper  grounds 
than  mere  national  ones,  important  though  the  latter 
may  be.  There  is  human  nature  in  general,  and  the 
law  of  its  unfolding — common  to  all  civilized  nations. 
"What  is  common  to  civilized  nations,  however,  is  not 
shared  by  half-civilized  nations,  for  they  interfere  with 
the  development  of  individuality  at  a  far  earlier  stage 
than  civilized  nations  do,  and  purposely  dwarf  its 
growth.  Civilized  nations  differ  as  to  limits  imposed  ; 
but  all  peoples  who  have  set  a  constitutional  limit  to 
the  caprice  of  their  chief  executive,  allow  individuality 
to  develop  to  that  degree  that  it  discriminates  its  ra- 
tional from  its  arbitrary  phase. 


FROEBEL  AND  THE  KINDERGARTEN*.       145 

Questions  to  be  Settled. — "  Should  caprice  be  tol- 
erated in  any  phase  of  the  development  of  childhood  ? 
Ought  it  not  to  be  annihilated  as  soon  as  it  appears  ?  Is 
it  wise  to  rationalize  the  activity  of  childhood  as  soon 
as  it  begins  ?  Is  there  not  a  danger  in  any  systematic 
training  of  the  child,  that  his  will-power  may  become 
weakened  by  subordinating  it  to  prescribed  rules  before 
it  gets  developed  sufficiently  ?  Moreover,  that  question 
of  too  much  stimulus  at  an  early  age  is  a  serious  one. 
"We  all  know  that  the  children  brought  up  in  the  city 
are  over-excited  from  infancy  by  the  multitude  of  ob- 
jects continually  presented  to  their  senses.  In  the 
country  it  is  far  otherwise.  The  difference  between 
city-developed  individuality  and  that  of  the  country  is 
very  great  as  to  depth  and  toughness.  The  alertness  of 
the  city  intellect  is  purchased  at  a  sacrifice  of  other 
qualities  which  are  essential  to  fully-developed  charac- 
ter. Questions  like  these  deserve  careful  consideration.'3 
7 


CHAPTER  IX. 

AGASSIZ;  AND  SCIENCE  IN  ITS  RELATIONS  TO 
EDUCATION. 

The  Scope  and  End  of  Science. — In  an  article 
upon  the  "  Culture  demanded  by  Modern  Life,"  Prof. 
Youmans  says :  "  Science,  in  its  true  and  largest  mean- 
ing, is  the  right  interpretation  of  Nature — a  compre- 
hension of  the  workings  of  law  wherever  law  prevails. 
It  matters  nothing  whether  the  subjects  are  stones  or 
stars,  human  souls,  or  complications  of  social  relations ; 
the  most  perfect  of  each  constitutes  its  special  science, 
and  the  comprehensive  view  of  the  relations  which  each 
sustains  to  all  realizes  the  highest  idea  of  science." 

This  definition  at  once  elevates  science  out  of  the 
domain  of  mere  materialism,  and  makes  it  comprehend 
every  department  of  human  thought.  The  "right  in- 
terpretation of  Nature  "  means  the  pursuit  of  truth  in 
every  field  of  research.  It  is  not  the  subject-matter, 
but  the  positive  knowledge  of  the  subject,  including 
both  facts  and  inferences,  that  constitutes  the  science. 
The  highest  science  is  that  which  starts  from  the  laws 
established  by  the  special  sciences,  coordinates  them  all, 
and,  by  a  process  of  higher  inferences,  arrives  at  the 
highest  and  most  comprehensive  laws. 


AGASSIZ   AND   SCIEKCE.  147 

Philosophy  and  Utility. — In  the  ancient  philoso- 
phies, a  broad  distinction  was  made  between  the  prod- 
ucts of  reflection,  or  speculative  thought,  and  those  sub- 
jects which  consider  the  common  and  daily  needs  of 
men.  The  former  alone  were  thought  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, and  scholars  were  encouraged  to  pursue  truth  and 
virtue  for  their  own  sake.  The  methods  of  these  phi- 
losophies were  also,  to  a  great  extent,  those  of  specula- 
tion rather  than  investigation,  and  the  value  of  the  phys- 
ical sciences  was  quite  underrated.  This  sentiment  in 
regard  to  the  nature  of  philosophic  research  continued 
down  to  periods  comparatively  modern.  Bacon  was  the 
first  philosopher  to  take  distinct  issue  with  this  idea,  and 
to  proclaim  that  the  true  object  of  philosophic  inquiry 
was  "  fruit,"  in  the  promotion  of  human  welfare,  and 
that  the  true  method  was  the  investigation  and  interpre- 
tation of  Nature. 

The  spirit  of  the  old  philosophies,  to  some  extent, 
still  survives,  and  scientific  men  of  the  present  day  ex- 
hort enthusiastic  students  "  to  pursue  science  for  its  own 
sake,"  and  they  frequently  brand  the  idea  of  use  as  a 
mere  "  bread-and-butter  consideration,"  beneath  the  no- 
tice of  the  true  votary  of  science. 

Prof.  TyndalVs  Opinion.  —  Prof.  Tyndall,  in  his 
farewell  speech  at  New  York,  uses  the  following  lan- 
guage in  regard  to  this  question :  "  In  the  pursuit  of 
science,  the  first  worker  is  the  investigator  of  natural 
truth,  whose  vocation  it  is  to  pursue  that  truth,  and  ex- 
tend the  field  of  discovery  for. the  truth's  own  sake, 
and  without  reference  to  practical  ends."  Again  he 
says:  "Keep  your  sympathetic  eye  on  the  originator  of 
knowledge.     Give  him  the  freedom   necessary  fur  his 


148  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

researches,  not  demanding  of  him  so-called  practical  re- 
sults. Above  all  things,  avoid  that  question  which  ig- 
norance so  often  addresses  to  genius :  '  What  is  the  use 
of  your  work  ? '  "  These  extracts  show  the  persistence 
of  philosophic  notions,  even  after  the  systems  of  thought 
to  which  they  were  attached  have  been  entirely  super- 
seded. 

Another  View. — Many  of  the  most  far-seeing  think- 
ers of  modern  times  do  not  share  in  this  opinion  of  the 
ignoble  nature,  or  secondary  importance,  of  utility.  They 
claim  that  the  question  "  What  use  ? "  is  entirely  legiti- 
mate when  applied  to  any  pursuit  in  which  mankind 
can  engage,  and  that  the  answer  to  this  question,  show- 
ing that  the  pursuit  is  useful  or  otherwise,  is  an  infal- 
lible guide  in  determining  whether  it  should  be  under- 
taken or  not.  The  term  "  use,"  however,  would  not  be 
restricted  to  any  mere  material  consideration,  but  would 
be  made  to  include  all  possible  human  needs,  physical 
and  spiritual.  In  this  broad  sense,  use  becomes  the  most 
powerful  incentive  to  labor  and  investigation.  A  desire 
to  reap  personal  advantage,  or  to  benefit  one's  own  fam- 
ily or  kindred,  or  the  broader  philanthropy  which  con- 
siders the  welfare  of  the  whole  human  family,  is  a  much 
stronger  motive  for  action  in  any  direction,  than  one 
which  takes  hold  of  the  intellect  but  fails  to  reach  the 
emotions. 

Prof.  Huxley's  Opinion. — In  a  lecture  upon  "  Bi- 
ology," Prof.  Huxley  says :  "  I  judge  of  the  value  of 
human  pursuits  by  their  bearing  upon  human  inter- 
ests ;  in  other  words,  by  their  utility.  Now,  in  an 
Englishman's  mouth,  it  generally  means  that  by  which 
we  get  pudding,  or  praise,  or  both.     I  have  no  doubt 


AGASSIZ  AXD   SCIENCE.  140 

that  is  one  meaning  of  the  word  utility,  but  it  by  no 
means  includes  all  I  mean  by  utility.  I  think  that 
knowledge  of  every  kind  is  useful  in  proportion  as  it 
tends  to  give  people  right  ideas,  which  are  essential  to 
the  foundation  of  right  practice,  and  to  remove  wrong 
ideas,  which  are  the  no  less  essential  foundation  and 
fertile  mothers  of  every  description  of  error  in  practice. 
And,  upon  the  whole,  inasmuch  as  this  world  is,  after 
all,  whatever  practical  people  may  say,  absolutely  gov- 
erned by  ideas,  and  very  often  by  the  wildest  and  most 
hypothetical  ideas,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  our  theories  of  things,  and  even  of  things 
that  seem  a  long  way  apart  from  our  daily  lives,  should 
be,  as  far  as  possible,  true,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  re- 
moved from  error.  It  is  not  only  in  t^ie  coarser,  prac- 
tical sense  of  the  word  'utility,'  but  in  this  higher  and 
broader  sense,  that  I  measure  the  value  of  a  study." 

Antagonisms  Harmonized. — There  seems  to  be  no 
need  of  essential  antagonism  between  those  who  would 
urge  the  importance  of  original  investigation  and  those 
who  demand  that  "fruit"  to  human  welfare  shall  be  the 
result  of  all  investigation.  From  history  we  derive  two 
essential  facts  bearing  upon  the  subject.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  when  intellectual  operations  were  purely  specula- 
tive, ignoring  alike  Nature  and  human  needs,  the  specu- 
lations themselves  were  valueless  as  reaching  results  in 
any  of  the  realms  of  truth ;  and  the  vital  force  spent 
upon  them  was,  in  a  great  measure,  wasted.  On  the 
other  hand,  since  the  time  of  Bacon,  scientific  investi- 
gation has  been  pursued  in  the  spirit  of  utility,  and 
there  have  resulted,  not  only  increased  comforts  and  hap- 
piness to  man,  but  higher  philosophic  results  in  the  re- 


150         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

gions  of  pure  intellect  and  morals  than  the  world  has 
ever  before  seen.  Intellectual  speculation,  divorced  from 
humanity,  results  in  visionary  dreaming  and  in  the  de- 
struction of  intellectual  power.  Intellectual  investiga- 
tion, in  the  interests  of  humanity,  reaches  the  loftiest 
heights  of  pure  thought,  and  indefinitely  increases  in- 
tellectual power. 

From  the  facts  of  history,  the  broad  inference  has 
been  made  that  every  discovery  in  the  fields  of  physical, 
intellectual,  or  moral  activity  has  been  of  use  in  estab- 
lishing a  law,  and  the  discovery  of  every  law  has  di- 
rectly benefited  man.  No  matter  how  useless  the  new 
truths  appeared  at  the  moment  of  discovery,  in  the  end 
they  were  found  useful  as  contributing  in  some  way  to 
human  welfare. 

Incentive  to  Investigation. — This  generalization  be- 
comes an  incentive  and  an  inspiration  to  active  scientific 
workers.  With  the  most  implicit  faith  that  any  dis- 
coveries which  he  can  make  will  be  of  use  to  the  hu- 
man race,  the  student  of  science  can  now  devote  him- 
self to  any  branch  of  scientific  research  to  which  his 
taste  may  incline  him.  His  answer  to  the  question 
"  What  use  ? "  is  ever  ready  in  general  terms,  if  not  in 
specific  details ;  and  there  is  no  reason  for  either  mis- 
representing the  nature  of  utility,  nor  for  ignoring  it 
altogether.  The  great  incentive  to  endeavor  still  re- 
mains ;  and  although  he  may  never  experience  the  di- 
rect benefit  of  his  discoveries,  in  the  certainty  of  their 
final  utility,  he  may  abandon  himself  to  the  pleasure  of 
their  pursuit,  content  to  leave  the  richest  fruit  of  his 
work  to  be  gathered  by  those  who  come  after  him. 

It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  the  true  scientific 


AGASSIZ  AND  SCIENCE.  151 

spirit  constantly  considers  human  welfare,  and  in  this 
way  indirectly  promotes  moral  action.  It  seeks  to  find 
that  which  is  true,  in  order  to  establish  that  which  is 
good.  The  discovery  of  every  new  law,  in  the  infinite 
order  of  the  universe,  becomes  at  once  a  new  power  to 
be  used  for  human  advancement,  and  a  new  incentive 
to  human  action.  "We  have  next  to  consider  the  methods 
which  science  uses  most  directly  and  effectually  to  ac- 
complish its  work. 

Methods  of  Science. — The  general  method,  as  con- 
tained in  the  direction  to  investigate  Nature  closely  and 
accurately,  was  laid  down  by  Bacon.  The  successive 
steps  in  this  investigation  as  now  practised  by  scientific 
men  are  stated  as  follows  by  Prof.  Huxley : 

First:  Observation  of  Facts,  including  that  artificial 
observation  called  experiment. 

Secondly :  The  process  of  tying  up  similar  facts  in 
bundles,  ticketed  ready  for  use,  which  is  called  com- 
parison and  classification  J  the  results  of  the  process — 
the  ticketed  bundles — being  named  general  propositions. 

Thirdly :  Deduction,  which  takes  us  from  the  gen- 
eral proposition  to  facts  again,  teaches  us  to  anticipate 
from  the  ticket  what  is  in  the  bundle. 

Fourthly :  Verification,  which  is  the  process  of  as- 
certaining whether  in  point  of  fact  our  anticipation  is  a 
correct  one. 

Scientific  Metlwds  in  Teaching. — It  will  be  seen  that 
the  steps  in  this  scientific  method  are  substantially  those 
which  have  previously  been  described  in  the  chaptera  on 
Objective  and  Subjective  Teaching.  The  experience  of 
scientific  men  has  shown  that  this  is  not  only  the  most 
direct  method  of  making  new  discoveries,  but  it  is  the 


152         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

only  method  by  wliicli  positive  and  certain  knowledge 
can  be  obtained,  and  made  a  permanent  possession  of 
the  mind.  The  experience  of  teachers  has  also  shown 
that  these  methods  are  the  best  and  most  direct  for  ac- 
complishing the  objects  of  education — the  acquisition  of 
useful  knowledge,  and  the  development  of  the  mental 
faculties.  The  man  of  science  and  the  educator,  though 
starting  from  different  points  and  traversing  different 
routes,  have  arrived  at  the  same  results,  the  conclusions 
of  the  one  strengthening  and  corroborating  those  of  the 
other. 

Defects  in  Teaching  luhich  Science  Remedies. — In 
the  work  of  Pestalozzi,  the  subject-matter  of  the  lessons 
given  in  the  classes  was  of  a  fragmentary  character ;  and 
although  it  aroused  the  attention  and  trained  the  observ- 
ing powers,  it  often  failed  to  show  the  relations  of  one 
lesson  to  another,  and  to  give  that  connected  chain  of 
thought  necessary  to  scientific  reasoning. 

In  the  schools  founded  upon  the  Pestalozzian  princi- 
ples, the  same  state  of  things  is  usually  observed,  the 
objects  being  chosen  solely  for  their  use  in  impressing 
the  direct  lesson  of  the  hour,  without  considering  the 
relation  of  the  object  to  the  other  objects  or  facts  in  the 
same  field  of  investigation  or  department  of  thought. 

Waking  up  Mind. — In  the  "  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching  " — the  most  valuable  of  all  the  contributions 
which  this  country  has  yet  made  to  the  literature  of 
teaching — the  author,  David  P.  Page,  gives  a  most  inter- 
esting sketch  of  a  lesson  upon  an  ear  of  corn,  under  the 
suggestive  title  of  "  Waking  up  Mind."  This  work  was 
published  in  1847,  and  the  lesson  in  question  was  one  of 
the  first  expositions  of  the  nature  and  value  of  object- 


AGASSIZ  AND  SCIENCE.  153 

lessons  ever  made  in  this  country.  But  Mr.  Page  died 
before  he  could  see  the  fruits  which  were  to  come  by 
following  out  the  principles  involved  in  his  model  lesson. 
He  probably  little  thought  that  the  suggestion,  which 
he  regarded  valuable  only  as  breaking  the  monotony 
and  tedium  of  the  ordinary  schoolroom  routine,  was 
destined  to  very  nearly  supersede  that  routine  in  pri- 
mary schools ;  and  that  all  the  work  given  to  pupils  would 
eventually  be  so  arranged  that  each  lesson  would  result 
in  "  waking  up  mind." 

Growth  of  the  Scientific  Principle. — The  method 
so  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Page  has  been  largely 
adopted  since  the  date  of  his  writing,  under  the  name 
of  object-teaching,  and  its  principles  and  limitations  are 
now  quite  clearly  understood.  Meanwhile,  science  has 
become  more  and  more  systematic,  and  at  last  it  is  seen 
that  the  methods  of  science  and  the  methods  of  educa- 
tion are  identical.  Science  dealing  with  knowledge, 
and  education  dealing  with  development,  move  along  the 
same  routes ;  and  the  apparent  antagonism  between  the 
practical  and  the  theoretical  disappears. 

Many  of  the  most  prominent  among  the  scientific 
men  of  the  present  century  have  taken  deep  interest  in 
educational  work,  both  for  its  special  bearings  upon 
science,  and  for  its  effects  upon  humanity  at  large.  In 
the  general  change  of  educational  methods  they  have 
recognized  the  evidences  of  real  progress  ;  and  there  has 
conic  to  be  a  quite  prevalent  opinion  that  these  changes 
should  go  on  until  our  school  courses  include  the  subject- 
matter  as  well  as  the  methods  of  science. 

Agassiz's  Work. — Among  those  men  of  science  who 
became  specially  interested  in  schools,  none  occupied  a 


154         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

higher  place  than  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz,  the  great  nat- 
uralist. During  the  whole  of  his  long  and  most-  hon- 
orable career  as  a  man  of  science,  while  intent  upon 
his  special  work,  he  ever  sought  to  raise  education  out 
of  its  narrow  formalism,  and  to  infuse  into  it  something 
of  the  spirit  which  animates  the  devotee  of  science. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  life,  the  educational  value 
of  science  seemed  to  occupy  his  attention  more  and 
more ;  and  he  so  devoted  his  energies  to  this  work,  that 
he  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  great  leader  in  the  new 
educational  reform. 

Early  Life. — The  early  life  of  Agassiz  eminently 
fitted  him  for  this  position.  He  was  born  upon  the 
banks  of  Lake  Xeufchatel,  in  the  northwest  part  of 
Switzerland.  His  early  youth  was  passed  amid  the  most 
noble  and  beautiful  scenery  in  Europe.  In  his  work  on 
Pestalozzi,  Prof.  Krusi  gives  the  following  description 
of  this  lake  and  its  vicinity  : 

"  To  the  west,  the  Jura  Mountains  extend  in  an  un- 
broken chain,  delightfully  varied  by  pastures,  forests, 
deep  ravines,  and  masses  of  bare  rock.  From  the  sum- 
mits of  these  mountains  the  traveler  looks  down  upon 
the  tranquil  lake  beneath ;  while  to  the  south  lies  the 
wide  valley,  with  all  its  variegated  richness,  bounded  by 
the  snow-clad  Alps,  from  the  centre  of  which  towers  the 
majestic  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  The  valley  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  river  Orbe,  which,  fed  from  an  invisible 
lake  above,  rises  suddenly  from  beneath  a  high  rock, 
and  lower  down  falls  over  a  precipice." 

Love  of  Nature. — With  such  attractions  around  him, 
the  peculiarly  impressible  mind  of  young  Agassiz  could 
scarcely  fail  of  becoming  enthusiastically  in  love  with 


AGASSIZ  AND  SCIENCE.  155 

Nature.  Much  of  his  time  in  early  youth  was  spent 
upon  -the  lake,  or  among  the  hills,  not  for  the  pur- 
poses of  mere  recreation,  but  for  study.  The  fish  he 
caught  were  lessons  rather  than  food  ;  and  at  the  age  of 
eleven  years,  when  he  was  sent  to  school,  he  was  familiar 
with  the  names,  appearance,  and  habits  of  all  the  finny 
tribe  of  Lake  Neufchatel. 

Vacation  Studies. — During  his  vacations  he  pur- 
sued, with  intense  enthusiasm,  the  other  departments  of 
natural  history,  and  traversed  fields  and  forests  to  be- 
come minutely  and  thoroughly  acquainted  with  their 
various  inhabitants.  This  devotion  to  the  study  of  Na- 
ture served  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  his  love  for 
books,  and  in  all  the  schools  he  attended  he  stood  among 
the  foremost  in  his  class.  The  knowledge  of  fishes 
which  he  obtained  upon  his  fishing  excursions  while  a 
boy,  and  which  he  greatly  extended  during  his  school 
vacations,  was  so  accurate  and  exhaustive  within  the 
limits  of  his  observation,  that,  while  at  the  university, 
he  was  able  to  make  many  important  corrections  in  the 
published  works  on  this  subject.  At  a  little  later  period, 
a  scientific  expedition  returned  from  Brazil  with  an  im- 
mense amount  of  material  for  scientific  study.  The 
professor  who  had  collected  the  fishes  unfortunately 
died  before  his  work  was  completed,  and  to  Agassiz  was 
committed  the  task  of  arranging,  classifying,  and  de- 
scribing, the  specimens  preserved.  This  work  was  per- 
formed with  so  much  ability,  that  it  placed  him  at  i 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  naturalists. 

Study  of  the  Glaciers. —  1 1  is  next  great  work  was 
the  examination  of  the  glacial  system  of  the  Alps. 
These  peculiar  formations  of  ice,  which  extend  down- 


156         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

ward  from  the  general  snow-line  of  the  mountains  thou- 
sands of  feet,  and  in  some  cases  along  the  slope  of  the 
mountains  many  miles,  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  men  from  early  times,  and  many  ingenious 
speculations  had  been  made  in  regard  to  them.  Agassiz 
became  deeply  interested  in  these  inquiries ;  but  instead 
of  hazarding  speculations  concerning  them,  he  set  about 
a  series  of  observations  and  experiments,  which  occupied 
many  months,  and  occasioned  several  visits  to  the  moun- 
tains. He  was  obliged,  at  times,  to  pass  weeks  together 
in  a  rude  hut  high  up  on  the  mountain,  and  on  the  very 
verge  of  the  glacier.  His  efforts  were  rewarded  by  the 
most  complete  success ;  and,  from  the  facts  which  he 
gathered,  he  was  able  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
glaciers,  their  origin,  their  rate  of  motion,  and  their 
effect  upon  the  ground  they  traversed. 

Enlarging  the  generalizations  from  the  facts  observed, 
lie  was  competent  to  state  the  laws  which  governed  the 
formation,  motion,  and  continuance  of  glaciers  so  accu- 
rately, that  all  subsequent  observations  have  only  served 
to  verify  them ;  so  that  evidences  of  glacial  action  have 
been  found  in  numerous  places  where  before  they  had 
never  been  supposed  to  exist.  Guided  by  the  inferences 
and  generalizations  which  he  made,  we  are  now  able  to 
look  back  upon  a  period  in  the  earth's  history  when 
masses  of  ice,  thousands  of  feet  thick,  extended  from 
the  northern  polar  regions  far  toward  the  equator,  flow- 
ing slowly  and  irresistibly  forward,  disrupting  moun- 
tains, and  ploughing  out  deep  furrows  for  streams  and 
lakes,  and  finally  dissolving  under  the  heat  of  the  semi- 
tropical  zone.  By  the  means  of  this  generalization,  a 
new  light  was  shed  upon  geology  and  geography,  and  a 


AGASSIZ   AND  SCIENCE.  157 

new  province  of  the  unknown  was  brought  within  the 
domain  of  human  intelligence. 

Spirit  of  nis  Wojrk. — The  spirit  cherished  by  Agas- 
siz  while  young,  animated  him  through  life,  and  in  all 
his  work  he  was  a  most  careful  investigator,  allowing  no 
facts  to  escape  him,  while  he  was  always  reticent  in  re- 
gard to  opinions  until  the  whole  case  had  been  exam- 
ined. These  qualities  and  habits  gave  weight  to  his 
mature  judgment,  and  he  became  a  great  power  in  the 
scientific  world. 

The  Old  Methods  Distrusted. — Agassiz's  experience 
in  the  schools  early  made  him  distrustful  of  the  methods 
of  education  generally  pursued.  He  was  conscious  that, 
for  his  own  knowledge  and  mental  power,  he  was  more 
indebted  to  his  solitary  rambles  than  to  his  formal  course 
of  study.  He  further  saw  that,  in  the  prevailing  edu- 
cation, language  largely  took  the  place  of  thought ;  that 
more  attention  was  given  to  the  symbols  of  knowledge 
than  to  the  knowledge  itself  ;  that  much  of  the  knowl- 
edge pretended  to  be  given  was  so  inaccurate  and  super- 
ficial as  to  be  of  little  worth;  that  text-books  and  lexi- 
cons were  invested  with  an  inflexible  authority  fatal  to 
independence  of  thought ;  and  that  the  whole  process 
of  education  did  not  result  in  giving  accurate  knowl- 
edge, power  of  vigorous  thought,  or  incentives  to  right 
aetion. 

Reformation  Begun. — These  errors,  he  saw,  could 
be  corrected  only  by  a  radical  and  fundamental  change 
in  the  whole  system  of  education,  in  which  the  scientific 
spirit  and  methods  should  play  a  prominent  part.  lie 
commenced   the  work  of  reform  with  his  characteristic 


158         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

caution  and  energy,  calling  attention  to  some  of  the 
prominent  defects  of  education  in  his  public  lectures, 
and  demonstrating  the  superiority  of  the  new  system  by 
instructing  classes  of  students  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  which  he  established  at  Cambridge. 

The  School  at  Penikese. — His  success  was  so  great, 
that  he  resolved  to  try  and  reach  the  public  schools  by 
instruction  offered  to  teachers.  To  this  end,  he  set  about 
the  establishment  of  a  class,  to  be  held  in  the  summer 
vacations  of  the  schools,  where  teachers  might  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  scientific  methods.  His  idea  finally 
took  shape  in  the  establishment  of  the  Anderson  School 
of  Natural  History  at  Penikese  Island,  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  Massachusetts.  At  this  point  fifty  pupils  were 
in  attendance  the  first  year,  under  his  immediate  super- 
vision. He  was  assisted  in  his  undertaking  by  several 
of  the  most  noted  specialists  in  natural  history.  The 
instruction  given  was  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating methods.  Each  pupil  was  set  to  the  study  of 
some  specimen  of  zoology,  in  which  study  he  was 
obliged  to  exercise  his  observing  powers  until  he  had 
seen,  and  was  able  to  describe,  the  most  noticeable  points 
in  the  object.  The  facts  derived  from  a  large  number 
of  observations  were  then  compared,  and  inferences 
made,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  general  laws. 
The  result  of  the  experiment  was  in  the  highest  degree 
satisfactory  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
instruction  given,  and  the  enthusiasm  inspired  among 
the  pupils. 

A  New  Era. —  The  establishment  of  this  school 
marks  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  education  in  this 
country.     Teachers,  fully  imbued  with  its  spirit,  have 


AGASSIZ  AND  SCIENCE.  159 

carried  its  methods  into  their  respective  spheres  of  la- 
bor distributed  throughout  the  country ;  and  from  their 
schools,  as  centres  of  influence,  both  the  spirit  and 
methods  are  rapidly  spreading  downward  toward  the 
elementary  schools,  where  they  will  eventually  become 
the  common  possession  of  all  pupils  in  every  grade  of 
instruction.  The  new  influence  is  demonstrated  in  a 
deeper  interest  manifested  in  study,  in  the  fresh  im- 
pulse given  to  scientific  research,  and  in  the  greater  ease 
with  which  pupils  are  aroused  to  intellectual  life. 

Unfinished  Plans. — The  life  of  "  the  master,"  as  he 
was  affectionately  called  by  his  pupils,  was  cut  short  at 
the  very  commencement  of  this  most  important  enter- 
prise of  his  life,  and  it  is  left  to  others  to  carry  on  to  a 
successful  termination  the  work  which  he  began.  Un- 
fortunately, he  left  no  authoritative  statement  in  regard 
to  either  the  methods  or  plans  which  he  intended  to 
pursue,  and  probably  he  had  never  consciously  formu- 
lated them.  After  taking  the  initial  steps  in  the  right 
direction,  he  would  have  been  guided  by  the  same  prin- 
ciples which  must  control  all  fruitful  investigation,  and 
welcomed  such  truth  as  would  have  been  developed, 
each  new  truth  extending  the  boundaries  of  experience, 
and  serving  as  a  guide  to  the  next  step  in  advance. 

Summary  of  Principles. — From  direct  statements 
made  in  the  lectures  of  Agassiz,  from  fragmentary  hints 
scattered  through  his  writings,  and  from  the  general 
tenor  and  spirit  of  his  works,  we  may  regard  the  follow- 
ing principles  as  lying  at  the  foundation  of  his  theory 
of  education,  and  as  indicating  the  direction  which  effort 
must  take  in  order  to  reduce  this  theory  to  practice. 


160         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Training  tJie  Observing  Powers. — He  was  a  thor- 
ough believer  in  the  Pestalozzian  principle,  that  the 
senses  and  the  observing  powers  are  to  be  cultivated 
and  trained  from  the  outset,  and  that  the  other  mental 
powers  are  to  be  brought  into  activity  in  the  order  of 
their  natural  growth.  Further  than  this,  he  believed 
that  the  successful  operation  of  the  higher  faculties  of 
the  mind  in  solving  the  problems  of  thought,  and  in 
arriving  at  just  conclusions,  depends  upon  the  faithful- 
ness with  which  perception  has  been  cultivated  ;  and  he 
seemed  to  have  little  or  no  faith  in  the  value  of  that 
instruction  which  has  no  basis  in  experience. 

Importance  of  Hand- Work. — In  his  practice  he 
strongly  supported  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  Froe- 
bel — the  necessity  of  training  the  hand  as  well  as  the  eye. 
In  all  his  work  he  instructed  his  pupils  to  handle  the 
specimens  which  they  were  studying,  so  as  to  become 
familiar  with  them  under  all  circumstances.  He  also 
advocated  the  general  introduction  of  drawing  as  one  of 
the  most  essential  of  the  studies  which  could  be  pursued 
in  the  common  schools.  He  frequently  remarked  that, 
"  in  the  study  of  natural  history,  the  ability  to  draw  the 
specimens  under  consideration  is  equivalent  to  the  pos- 
session of  a  third  eye."  He  regarded  drawing,  also,  as 
one  of  the  most  important  aids  to  mental  development, 
and  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  every  grade  of 
school. 

Science  the  Basis  of  Education. — From  his  experi- 
ence and  observation  he  was  convinced  that  the  subject- 
matter  of  instruction,  in  general  use  in  schools,  is  of  but 
little  practical  importance  in  promoting  the  highest  in- 
terests of  humanity,  thus  defeating  one  of  the  funda- 


AGASSIZ  AXD  SCIENCE.  161 

mental  aims  of  education.  The  recollections  of  his 
boyhood  days  gave  him  an  intense  sympathy  with  those 
who  had  a  longing  for  real  rather  than  apparent  knowl- 
edge, lie  found  in  science  onlv.  the  knowledge  which 
would  serve  the  double  purpose  of  education  in  the  most 
effective  manner. 

Besides  this,  he  found  that  the  possession  of  real  or 
scientific  knowledge  was  of  the  greatest  importance,  not 
only  in  carrying  on  all  the  complicated  relations  of  so- 
ciety, but  in  successfully  competing  for  the  prizes  of 
the  world.  In  agriculture,  in  manufactures,  in  the  arts, 
and  in  business  generally,  success  depends  largely  upon 
the  possession  of  accurate  knowledge  in  these  several 
departments.  In  the  struggle  for  existence,  ignorance 
has  no  chance  in  competition  with  intelligence. 

This  accurate  knowledge  is  of  benefit  in  other  re- 
spects. It  bestows  upon  labor  its  largest  returns,  and 
gives  to  the  laborer  leisure  for  higher  pursuits.  It  di- 
rects efforts  to  worthy  and  attainable  ends,  and  points 
out  the  way  of  improvement.  It  prevents  the  loss  in- 
volved in  making  anew  experiments  which  time  and 
again  have  resulted  in  failure ;  and  it  effectually  warns 
against  the  continuance  of  courses  of  conduct  which 
are  destructive  alike  to  human  effort  and  human  wel- 
fare. 

Knoiolcdge  Necessary  for  Discipline. — In  addition 
to  the  practical  value  of  scientific  knowledge,  he  regard- 
ed the  methods  of  science  as  preeminently  adapted  to 
the  culture  of  the  mind.  These  methods  lead  not  to 
speculative  but  to  accurate  results;  and  he  had  a  pro- 
found distrust  for  that  culture  which  ignores,  or  affects 
to  despise,  scientific  knowledge.     lie  would  extend  to 


162         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

every  department  of  human  thought  the  methods  which 
had  proved  of  so  much  value  in  his  own  field  of  natu- 
ral history. 

Autlwrity  in  Science  and  Education. — Prof.  Agas- 
siz  utterly  repudiated  authority  in  science  or  education. 
The  fundamental  condition  of  all  excellence  in  mental 
work  is  absolute  freedom  of  thought.  Investigation  is 
in  direct  antagonism  to  authority  in  any  of  its  forms. 
Every  human  being  must  be  free  to  investigate  and  to 
think,  and  to  follow  the  results  of  investigation  and 
thought  whithersoever  they  may  lead.  The  objective 
point  of  all  study  is  truth.  Any  system  that  imposes 
authority  upon  the  intellect,  so  far  as  it  succeeds,  stifles 
investigation,  and  takes  away  from  the  individual  the 
power  of  judging  between  truth  and  falsehood. 

Authority  is  also  fatal  to  that  confidence  which  every 
one  should  have  in  the  results  of  his  own  mental  pro- 
cesses. This  confidence  will  be  more  or  less  absolute,  de- 
pending upon  the  carefulness  of  previous  study ;  but  the 
interposition  of  authority  leads  to  a  distrust  of  infer- 
ences which  are  based  on  well-known  facts,  and  in  this 
way  weakens  both  the  intellect  and  the  will. 

Thoroughness  in  Work  and  Study. — In  all  the  say- 
ings and  work  of  Agassiz  he  advocated  and  practised 
the  greatest  possible  thoroughness.  His  maxims  in  this 
regard  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  :  "  Observe  care- 
fully, and  compare  the  results  of  different  observations, 
before  you  state  your  conclusions  as  facts."  "  Be  sure 
of  all  the  facts  that  enter  into  the  case  before  you  gen- 
eralize." "  Verify  the  results  of  your  generalization 
before  you  state  it  as  a  law  or  a  principle."  "  Xever 
be  hasty  in  coming  to  decisions."     "  Be  reticent  as  to 


AGASSIZ   AXD   SCIENCE.  103 

the  expression  of  opinions  until  the  most  thorough  in- 
vestigation has  been  made." 

Scientific  Object- Lessons. — The  system  -which  Agas- 
siz  put  in  practice  in  his  school  at  Penikese,  and  which 
he  advocated  in  his  lectures,  includes  object-lessons ;  but 
from  the  very  outset  he  would  give  these  lessons  in  con- 
nected series,  making  each  series  lead  directly  into  one 
of  the  sciences.  By  this  means  all  the  good  results  of 
object-lessons  will  be  gained,  with  the  additional  advan- 
tages that  both  the  methods  used  and  the  knowledge 
gained  are  of  great  worth  in  after-life. 

The  prineijnes  of  teaching  which  Agassiz  advocated 
and  practised  are  now  generally  accepted  and  made  the 
basis  of  instruction  in  scientific  schools.  Among  scien- 
tific men  there  is  a  substantial  agreement  in  regard  to 
them.  Laboratories  for  practical  experiment  and  inves- 
tigation on  the  part  of  the  students  are  now  a  part  of 
the  ecpiipment  of  all  the  technical  and  scientific  schools, 
and  they  are  rapidly  becoming  a  necessity  wherever 
science  ia  taught. 

Corroborative  Views. — The  following  extract  from 
a  late  speech  of  Prof.  Huxley  npon  the  study  of  biolo- 
gy shows  how  far  he  is  in  accord  with  the  practices 
-which  proved  so  successful  at  Penikese:  ''(J ranting 
that  biology  is  something  worth  studying,  what  is  the 
best  way  of  studying  it?  Here  I  must  point  out  that, 
since  biology  is  a  physical  science,  the  methods  of  study- 
ing it  must  be  analogous  to  that  which  is  followed  in  the 
other  physical  sciences.  It  has  long  been  recognized 
that,  if  a  man  wishes  to  be  a  chemist,  it  is  not  only 

necessary  that  he  should  read  chemical  books  and  attend 
chemical  lectures,  but  that  he  should  actually  himself 


164         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

perform  the  fundamental  experiments  in  his  laboratory, 
and  know  exactly  what  the  words  which  he  finds  in  his 
books  and  hears  from  his  teachers  mean.  If  he  does 
not,  he  may  read  till  the  crack  of  doom,  but  he  will 
never  know  much  about  chemistry.  That  is  what  every 
chemist  will  tell  you,  and  the  physicist  will  do  the  same 
for  his  branch  of  science.  The  great  changes  and  im- 
provements in  physical  and  chemical  scientific  education, 
which  have  taken  place  of  late,  have  all  resulted  from 
the  combination  of  practical  teaching  with  the  reading 
of  books  and  the  hearing  of  lectures. 

"  The  same  thing  is  true  in  biology.  Nobody  will 
ever  know  anything  about  biology,  except  in  a  dilettant, 
'  paper-philosophic '  way,  who  contents  himself  with  read- 
ing books  on  botany,  zoology,  and  the  like ;  and  the 
reason  for  this  is  simple  and  easy  to  understand.  It  is, 
that  all  language  is  merely  symbolical  of  the  things,  of 
which  it  treats ;  the  more  complicated  the  things,  the 
more  bare  is  the  symbol,  and  the  more  its  verbal  defini- 
tion requires  to  be  supplemented  by  the  information 
derived  directly  from  the  handling,  and  the  seeing,  and 
the  touching  of  the  thing  symbolized :  that  is  really 
what  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole  matter.  It  is  plain 
common  sense,  as  all  truth  in  the  long  run  is,  only  com- 
mon sense  clarified. 

"  If  you  want  a  man  to  be  a  tea-merchant,  you  don't 
tell  him  to  read  books  about  China,  or  about  tea,  but 
you  put  him  into  a  tea-merchant's  office,  where  he  has  the 
handling,  the  smelling,  and  the  tasting  of  tea.  With- 
out the  sort  of  knowledge  which  can  be  gained  in  this 
practical  way,  his  exploits  as  a  tea-merchant  will  soon 
come  to   a  bankrupt  conclusion.     The  '  paper-philoso- 


AGASSIZ  AND  SCIENCE.  165 

pliers '  are  under  the  delusion  that  physical  science  can 
be  mastered  as  literary  accomplishments  are  acquired, 
but  unfortunately  it  is  not  so.  You  may  read  any  quan- 
tity of  books,  and  you  may  be  almost  as  ignorant  as  you 
were  at  starting,  if  you  don't  have,  at  the  back  of  your 
minds,  the  change  for  words  in  definite  images,  which 
can  only  be  acquired  through  the  operation  of  your  ob- 
serving faculties  in  the  phenomena  of  Nature." 

Uses  of  Hypotheses. — The  question  has  lately  arisen 
in  scientific  circles  as  to  whether  hypotheses  and  theo- 
ries as  such  should  be  taught  in  our  schools — one  party 
claiming  that  school-instruction  should  be  confined  to 
demonstrated  science,  and  the  other  maintaining  that 
the  relations  of  the  facts  can  be  much  better  understood 
by  grouping  them  in  accordance  with  a  probable  theory. 
In  the  discussion,  one  position  taken  by  those  in  favor 
of  excluding  hypotheses  is  entirely  untenable.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  demonstrated  laws,  or  the  results  of  scientific 
study,  should  be  taught  to  pupils,  and  that  such  laws 
should  be  made  the  basis  of  their  education. 

A  practice  of  this  kind  would  be  subversive  of  the 
highest  good  to  be  derived  from  educational  processes. 
It  would  state  scientific  truths  in  dogmatic  forms,  and 
would  require  an  unquestioned  acceptance  of  them.  It 
would  present  principles  before  the  facts  are  known 
upon  which  the  principles  are  based,  and  it  would  give 
formulas  of  words  meaningless  to  those  acquiring  them. 
It  would  retain  in  the  worst  form  the  dogmatic  and 
memorizing  processes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teaching  of  hypotheses  pre- 
maturely is  open  to  similar  objections.  Presented  be- 
fore all  the  facts  bearing  upon  the  case  arc  known,  and 


166         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

before  the  evidences  have  been  investigated,  the  hy- 
pothesis becomes  a  mere  verbal  formula.  As  an  instru- 
ment of  education,  it  fails  to  awaken  the  mind  to  any 
productive  thought ;  and  it  frequently  becomes  a  serious 
detriment  to  future  investigation,  from  the  mistaken 
notion  that  the  matter  is  already  understood. 

Value  of  Hypotheses. — Science  in-the-making  makes 
use  of  hypotheses.  When  facts  in  a  certain  direction 
first  become  known,  they  are  apparently  disconnected. 
A  hypothesis  is  the  effort  to  construct  a  rational  system 
that  will  show  all  the  existing  relations,  and  it  is  rela- 
tively good  when  it  accounts  for  all  the  facts  in  the  case 
without  disregarding  laws  which  have  been  established 
in  other  departments  of  thought.  When  new  facts 
bearing  upon  the  case  are  discovered  that  the  hypothesis 
does  not  cover,  then  it  must  be  changed  or  abandoned 
for  a  larger  one.  These  provisional  hypotheses  are 
necessary  to  scientific  advancement,  and  they  are  detri- 
mental only  when  facts  are  distorted  or  suppressed  for 
the  purpose  of  maintaining  them. 

Hypotheses  in  Education. — It  is  very  plain  that  the 
hypothesis  which  accounts  for  facts  has  no  place  in  pri- 
mary schools,  or  in  any  schools,  until  the  facts  are  first 
known.  It  must  be  inferred  from  the  facts,  and  the 
true  office  of  the  educator  is  to  present  facts  in  such 
connection  that  rational  hypotheses  must  be  inferred. 
The  grounds  for  inference  are  well  set  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  an  essay  by  Prof.  Clifford  : 

"  Suppose  that  we  do  not  merely  want  to  make  a  sup- 
position, but  to  infer  from  facts  before  us  what  actually 
happened  in  any  case.  Then  we  must  make  the  as- 
sumption that  there  is  some  sort  of  uniformity  in  Na- 


AGASSIZ   AND   SCIENCE.  1G7 

tare.  "Without  this  we  cannot  infer  at  all ;  for  inference 
consists  in  transferring  the  experience  which  we  have 
had  under  certain  conditions,  to  events  happening  under 
like  conditions  of  which  we  have  not  had  experience. 
It  is  true  that  we  cannot  be  absolutely  sure  of  the  uni- 
formity of  Nature,  or  that  our  present  conception  of  it 
is  right ;  but  still,  it  is  the  only  thing  we  have  to  go 
upon.  Human  knowledge  is  never  absolutely  and  the- 
oretically certain,  but  a  great  deal  of  it  is  certain,  which 
is  :ill  wc  want." 

Taking  the  uniformity  of  Nature  for  granted,  the 
hypothesis  may  be  inferred  from  the  facts  known — the 
process  being  one  of  comparison  and  generalization. 
All  comprehensive  generalizations,  however,  belong  to 
the  advanced  course  of  instruction,  as  they  appeal  ex- 
clusively to  the  reason  and  judgment.  A  hypothesis 
given  antecedent  to  study  is  an  obstacle  to  improve- 
ment ;  but  inferred  as  a  resultant  of  study,  it  becomes 
an  important  aid  to  intellectual  progress. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION  COMPARED. 

Introductory. —  The  examination  of  educational 
principles  in  the  preceding  pages  has  led,  incidentally, 
to  a  notice  of  the  methods  of  teaching  which  have  been 
practised  from  time  to  time.  These  methods,  so  widely 
differing  in  kind,  have  all  grown  out  of  the  different  the- 
ories in  regard  to  the  ends  to  be  sought  in  education,  and 
the  best  means  of  accomplishing  these  ends.  In  the 
present  chapter  there  is  given  a  more  extended  sum- 
mary of  methods,  with  a  brief  examination  of  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  are  founded. 

The  methods  to  which  special  attention  is  directed 
may  be  grouped  under  four  heads,  viz. :  "  Memorizing," 
"  The  Study  of  Books,"  "  The  Study  of  Things,"  and 
"  Experiment  and  "Work."  Each  of  these  now  has  its 
special  advocates,  and  each  is  loudly  demanding  recog- 
nition. The  first  two  have  the  advantage  of  possession, 
and  the  last  two  of  representing  the  new  thought  in 
education. 

Memorizing. — Upon  the  establishment  of  regular 
systems  of  school  instruction,  the  first  efforts  nearly  al- 
ways seem  to  be  directed  to  making  the  people  ac- 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION   COMPARED.  1G9 

quainted  with  the  results  of  the  experience  of  investiga- 
tions and  reflections  of  the  sages  of  the  past.  This 
wisdom,  usually  expressed  in  the  form  of  aphorisms  and 
proverbs,  is  considered  the  best  possible  basis  for  educa- 
tion ;  and  committing  the  words  to  memory  is  regarded 
as  the  best,  if  not  the  only,  means  by  which  the  wisdom 
may  be  obtained. 

Chinese  Schools. — In  China  this  system  came  very 
early  into  practice,  even  before  the  time  of  Confucius, 
and  has  continued  until  the  present  day.  Chinese 
schools  are  nearly  as  common  as  those  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced civilized  nations.  They  are  regularly  graded, 
from  the  primary  schools  in  the  little  hamlets,  to 
the  Imperial  University  at  Peking.  Throughout  these 
schools  the  instruction  consists  solely  in  memorizing 
the  productions  of  the  classic  Chinese  writers.  This 
instruction  is  graded  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
different  grades  of  schools,  that  of  the  primary  schools 
including  the  easier  and  more  common  literary  works, 
while  that  of  the  University  embraces  the  writings  of 
Confucius  and  the  other  most  distinguished  religious 
and  moral  teachers. 

The  examinations  aim  solely  to  test  the  fidelity  of 
pupils  in  repeating  the  exact  words  in  which  the  wise 
sayings  of  the  sages  are  recorded  ;  and  no  effort  is  made 
to  make  them  understand  any  portion  of  the  doctrine 
which  the  words  contain.  Criticism  is  a  thing  unknown, 
as  a  doubt  would  be  equivalent  to  sacrilege.  The  grad- 
uates of  the  schools  are  rewarded  with  official  govern- 
mental positions,  and  every  possible  incentive  is  offered 
for  success  in  school-work.  Indeed,  through  the  Bchool 
only  can  any  one  obtain  position  or  preferment  In  no 
8 


170  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

either  country  does  the  successful  scholar  so  directly  re- 
ceive reward. 

History  demonstrates  the  results  of  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem. The  memorizing  of  words,  and  the  blind  and 
implicit  acceptance  of  authority,  though  rigorously  pur- 
sued for  centuries,  have  proved  inadequate  bases  of 
education.  For  a  thousand  years,  the  people  who  made 
the  earliest  advances  in  most  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
have  remained  stationary,  or  have  gone  backward  in  the 
scale  of  civilization. 

The  very  measures  taken  to  perpetuate  intelligence 
have  been  the  most  efficient  means  of  arresting  prog- 
ress ;  and  as  long  as  the  methods  of  instruction  are  un- 
changed, the  most  populous  empire  of  the  world  must 
remain  in  a  state  of  semi-barbarism. 

The  Monkish  System. — Schools  established  during 
the  Middle  Ages  were  all  in  the  charge  of  monks,  and 
the  staple  of  instruction  was  the  memorizing  of  such 
texts  and  rales  as  would  best  promote  the  ends  proposed. 
The  Credo,  Pater  Foster,  and  the  standard  Latin  hymns, 
committed  to  memory,  with  no  idea  of  their  meaning, 
constituted  the  main  part  of  school  duty.  The  effort 
of  the  monkish  teachers  was  as  much  directed  to  the 
exclusion  of  such  knowledge  as  did  not  directly  sup- 
port their  views  and  authority,  as  it  was  to  promulgate 
that  of  the  opposite  kind. 

The  school  did  little  or  nothing  to  banish  ignorance 
from  the  people.  Science  was  interdicted  by  the  Church 
as  opposed  to  religion.  "  For  many  centuries,"  says 
Hallam,  "  to  sum  up  the  account  of  ignorance  in  a  word, 
it  was  rare  for  a  layman,  of  whatever  rank,  to  know 
how  to  sign  his  name." 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION   COMPARED.  171 

As  with  the  Chinese,  the  monkish  system  of  educa- 
tion demanded  a  blind  acceptance  of  authority,  and  it 
Mas  nearly  as  fatal  to  human  progress.  For  nearly  a 
thousand  years  the  human  intellect  was  kept  in  a  state 
of  vassalage.  The  improvement  of  the  masses,  which 
characterizes  modern  civilization,  scarcely  commenced 
until  the  shackles  of  monasticism  -were  removed,  through 
successful  insurrection  and  revolution. 

The  baleful  effects  of  the  old  education  long  con- 
tinued after  the  system  in  which  it  had  its  origin  passed 
away.  Memorizing  went  on  with  a  simple  change  in 
the  objects  upon  which  it  was  exercised,  and  authority 
was  still  invoked,  although  authority  of  a  different  kind. 

English  Schools. — In  the  English  public  schools,  the 
memorizing  process  has  always  maintained  a  consider- 
able foothold.  The  classic  languages  were  made  the 
basis  of  culture,  and  these  languages  were  taught  through 
the  grammar.  Pupils  were  required  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory an  almost  endless  number  of  paradigms,  rules,  and 
exceptions,  and  they  were  taught  to  obey  implicitly  the 
authority  of  grammar  and  dictionary.  This  exercise 
was  varied  by  obliging  the  pupil  to  write  Latin  verses, 
in  which  the  only  excellence  sought  and  required  was 
that  the  words  should  be  properly  chosen  in  regard  to 
quantity,  so  that  the  work  would  scan,  no  attention 
whatever  being  paid  to  the  thought  which  the  words  ex- 
pressed, and  frequently  it  was  not  even  required  that 
the  words  should  form  correct  sentences. 

The  prevalence  of  the  mechanical  method  in  English 
education   may  lie  inferred  from  the  large  number  '•!' 
endowed   grammar-schools.     According  to  both  o 
and  law,  the  name  grammar-6cho6\  is  made  to  signify  a 


172         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

school  in  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  are  the 
only  branches  of  instruction.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  the  grammar-school  was  the  only  school  in 
existence  in  England  ;  and  to  this  day,  among  endowed 
or  public  schools  of  all  varieties,  the  grammar-school 
holds  a  position  of  preeminence. 

Grounds  of  Defense. — In  our  own  schools  the  mem- 
orizing process  still  lingers,  and  teachers  require  the 
pupil  to  recite  the  text  verbatim.  He  may  catch  the 
thought  contained  in  the  words,  or  he  may  not ;  the  text 
he  must  get.  The  grounds  upon  which  this  course  is 
defended  are  as  follows : 

It  fixes  the  attention  upon  the  lesson,  and  thereby 
induces  habits  of  attention ;  it  trains  the  memory ;  it 
enables  the  teacher  to  judge  whether  study  has  been 
faithfully  performed  ;  it  furnishes  an  excellent  exercise 
in  language,  both  in  regard  to  the  structure  of  sentences 
and  the  use  of  words ;  and  even  if  the  subject  is  too 
difficult  to  be  understood,  it  may  be  well  to  have  it  lodged 
in  the  memory,  ready  for  use  when  the  mind  is  so  far 
developed  as  to  comprehend  it. 

Let  us  examine  these  reasons  in  detail. 

"Securing  Attention." — The  primary  attention  which 
should  always  be  fixed  on  thoughts,  by  this  process  is 
fixed  on  the  words,  leaving  the  thought  to  take  care  of 
itself.  This  word-food  does  not  conduce  to  mental 
growth.  By  thus  using  chaff  in  the  place  of  substance, 
the  mind  is  starved  and  stunted,  and  its  future  growth 
becomes  impossible.  It  busies  itself  henceforth  with 
petty  and  puerile  matters,  and  loses  its  power  to  grasp 
ennobling  thoughts. 


SYSTEMS   OF  EDUCATION   COMPARED.  173 

"  Training  the  Memory.-' — We  have  already  seen 
that  the  retentive  powers  are  best  cultivated  by  associ- 
ating each  new  idea  with  something  of  its  kind,  so  that 
it  may  be  retained  simply  because  of  its  relations,  thus 
relieving  the  mind  of  the  vast  strain  which  would  be 
put  upon  it  without  this  association.  The  process  in 
question  tends  to  cultivate  arbitrary  memory.  When 
this  power  is  unnecessarily  developed,  it  absorbs  much 
of  the  vital  force,  cumbers  the  mind  with  unrelated  and 
often  useless  matter,  and  effectually  prevents  the  higher 
and  better  cultivation  of  the  retentive  powers  through 
association. 

a  Judgment  of  Study T — By  means  of  genuine  study, 
whether  directed  to  objects  or  books,  the  mind  gets  pos- 
session of  real  knowledge.  The  true  test  of  study  is 
the  possession  of  this  knowledge.  The  mere  recitation 
of  the  words  of  the  book  is  no  truthful  standard  by 
which  to  judge  of  real  study.  It  may  decide  upon  the 
faithfulness  with  which  the  words  are  reproduced,  but 
no  opinion  can  be  formed  in  regard  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  thought  until  such  thought  is  fully  expressed 
in  the  language  of  the  pupil. 

"  Cultivation  of  Language." — The  true  mastery  of 
language  consists  in  the  ability  to  use  language  with 
correctness  and  facility,  and  this  ability  comes  from 
practice  alone.  Committing  to  memory  the  verbal  con- 
struction of  others  can  aid  a  pupil  very  little  in  acquir- 
ing the  power  to  construct  for  himself.  By  relying  up  >n 
the  book  for  the  language  in  which  he  clothes  his 
thoughts,  he  is  unfitted  for  original  expression,  just  as 
the  constant  use  of  crutches  would  unfit  him  for  the 
free  and  vigorous  use  of  his  limbs  in  walking. 


174  PRINCIPLES  AND    PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

"Future  Use." — The  claim  that  it  is  well  to  fill  the 
mind  with  the  forms  of  knowledge,  that  cannot  be  un- 
derstood or  intelligently  assimilated  until  some  future 
time,  is  only  paralleled  in  absurdity  by  the  claim  that 
the  stomach  of  a  child  should  be  filled  with  food  that 
can  be  digested  only  when  he  becomes  an  adult.  This 
claim  is  equally  absurd  when  examined  from  another 
point  of  view.  The  words  remembered  are  not  knowl- 
edge, and  they  can  be  transmuted  into  knowledge  only 
when  the  thought  which  they  express  is  fully  under- 
stood. Even  to  a  future  understanding  of  the  subject, 
the  possession  of  the  words  would  be  rather  a  hinder- 
ance  than  a  help,  by  fixing  the  attention  upon  form  in- 
stead of  sense. 

"We  thus  see  that  the  practice  of  memorizing  the 
text  is  utterly  indefensible  upon  any  ground  of  philoso- 
phy, and  that  it  remains  in  our  schools  as  an  evidence 
of  the  persistence  of  evil  practices,  long  after  the  occa- 
sion which  gave  them  birth  has  passed  away. 

The  Study  of  Books. — After  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing which  followed  the  invention  of  printing,  books, 
which  before  had  been  monopolized  by  the  few,  came 
into  general  use.  In  them  was  preserved  all  the  wis- 
dom of  the  ages  which  had  passed.  This  wisdom  was 
eagerly  sought  for,  with  an  interest  that  was  only  inten- 
sified by  the  previous  privation.  In  the  process  of  time, 
the  reaction  against  the  monopoly  of  learning  by  the  few 
was  earned  to  an  extreme,  and  books  became  almost 
objects  of  worship,  and  were  at  once  made  the  basis  of 
education. 

Ideas  of  what  Constitutes  an  Educated  Man. — It 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION   COMPARED.  175 

soon  came  to  pass  that  an  "  educated  man  "  meant  one 
who  had  a  plethoric  knowledge  of  ancient  lore,  rather 
than  one  who  had  full  possession  of  his  faculties,  and 
who  could  perform  with  ability  all  the  duties  of  life. 
In  popular  estimation,  the  pedant  who  could  repeat 
chapter  and  verse  from  old  authors,  or  recite  from  the 
original  of  Homer  or  Horace,  was  a  profound  scholar,  even 
though  he  had  as  little  practical  sense  as  Scott's  Dominie 
Sampson.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  had  ability 
to  construct  a  machine  which  would  emancipate  millions 
of  men  from  an  unprofitable  toil,  or  one  capable  of  man- 
aging the  affairs  of  State,  so  as  to  preserve  peace,  secure 
the  rights  of  all  the  people,  and  stimulate  a  nation  to  a 
higher  state  of  civilization,  was  not  an  educated  man, 
unless  he  could  construct  and  scan  Latin  verse,  and  de- 
cide, off-hand,  obscure  points  of  Greek  etymology. 

This  Worship  of  Bool's  has  continued  until  the 
present  day,  and  has  tended  greatly  to  vitiate  our  whole 
system  of  instruction.  In  most  of  the  schools  in  this 
country,  instruction  is  very  largely  confined  to  recita- 
tions in  certain  text-books.  The  question  in  regard  to 
proficiency  is  not  whether  the  pupil  understands  arith- 
metic, but  whether  he  has  been  through  with  Smith's 
or  Jones's  arithmetic.  The  lessons  assigned  are  not 
definite  topics  to  be  studied  and  mastered,  but  a  certain 
number  of  pages  to  recite  ;  and,  in  the  examination,  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  pupil  usually  has  been  deter- 
mined by  his  ability  to  reproduce  an  author,  and  not  by 
his  ability  to  demonstrate  the  subject. 

Evils  resulting  from  Abuse  of  Books. — The  first 
evil  result  of  the  abuse  of  books  is  that  this  process  of 
study,  having  no  basis  in  experience,  gives  to  the  stu- 


176  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

dent  apparent  rather  than  real  knowledge  ;  and,  while 
it  may  satisfy  his  appetite  for  the  moment,  it  contributes 
very  little  to  mental  development.  The  knowledge 
gained  is  apprehended  rather  than  comprehended,  and 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  accept  words,  without 
looking  for  the  thought  which  the  words  represent. 

The  knowledge  gained  from  books  is,  at  best,  second- 
hand ;  and  although  indispensable  to  a  full  education,  yet 
the  same  material,  gained  at  first-hand  from  actual  in- 
vestigation, not  only  will  make  a  much  deeper  impres- 
sion, but  will  lead  to  a  closer  examination  and  a  more 
profound  knowledge. 

By  relying  exclusively  upon  books,  the  habit  is 
formed  of  accepting  authority  without  question — a  habit 
fatal  to  the  cultivation  of  self-reliance  and  mental  prog- 
ress. The  first  effort  of  the  mind  is  to  observe,  and, 
next,  to  understand.  The  process  of  understanding  in- 
cludes the  most  careful  examinations  and  comparisons 
at  every  step  of  progress ;  and  this  process  is  entirely 
subverted  by  the  exclusive  lesson-reciting  method. 

The  Place  of  Text-Books. — We  have  already  seen 
that  the  child's  first  knowledge  comes  from  things,  and 
through  the  senses.  Before  he  enters  school  he  has 
gained  a  large  amount  of  knowledge  from  the  external 
world.  The  first  school-work  should  be  to  increase  his 
power  of  observation,  and  to  arrange  the  results  in  sys- 
tematic order.  When  the  objects  of  the  fields  and  the 
streets,  and  the  phenomena  with  which  he  is  in  daily 
contact,  are  well-nigh  exhausted,  recourse  may  be  had  to 
books,  and  the  instruction  carried  on  by  this  means  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  lessons  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  book-knowledge  will  be  directly  en- 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION  COMPARED.  177 

grafted  upon  that  gained  from  experience  ;  and,  just  so 
far  as  books  fail  in  this  particular,  they  fall  short  of 
their  highest  usefulness. 

The  Necessity  of  Text-Books. — In  the  present  con- 
dition of  education  text-books  are  indispensable.  They 
are  useful  as  the  repositories  of  knowledge.  They  sup- 
plement the  knowledge  gained  from  experience.  They 
arrange  knowledge  upon  the  different  subjects  of  inves- 
tigation, and  present  it  in  an  unbroken  series,  and  in  the 
order  of  its  logical  relations.  They  furnish  the  basis 
by  which  classes  are  kept  together.  They  lead  the  mind 
out  into  the  great  unknown,  and  store  it  with  facts  that 
cannot  be  directly  known  by  observation.  And,  lastly, 
they  furnish  the  crutches  upon  which  multitudes  of 
superficial  and  unqualified  teachers  are  able  to  plod 
along  in  the  unvarying  routine  of  prescribed  work. 

The  Proper  Use  of  Text-Books. — Text-books,  how- 
ever, should  be  used  as  a  means,  and  not  as  an  end. 
They  are  valuable  as  embodying  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  school  purposes,  and  for  nothing  else.  The 
proper  study  of  books  is  to  look  through  the  text  to  the 
thoughts  conveyed  ;  and  study  is  profitable  just  in  pro- 
portion to  the  accomplishment  of  thifl  end.  The  facts 
and  principles  derived  from  books  need  the  same  care- 
ful examination  and  the  same  close  scrutiny  as  those  de- 
rived from  the  observation  of  Nature.  The  habits  aris- 
ing from  this  examination  and  scrutiny  form  one  of  the 
most  important  of  all  educational  ends. 

Increased  Demand  for  Text-Books. — As  the  cause 
of  education  advances  in  the  right  direction,  there  will 

doubtless  be  a  call  for  more  rather  than  less  1 ks  for 

our  schools.     Besides  the  regular  treatises  in  the  various 


178         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

branches  of  instruction,  there  will  be  a  demand  for  larger 
and  more  complete  works  upon  the  sciences,  so  that  every 
pupil  will  have  an  opportunity  to  know  the  exact  state 
of  human  thought  on  the  various  topics  that  occupy  his 
attention.  At  no  distant  day  in  the  future,  an  un- 
abridged dictionary  and  some  complete  encyclopaedia  of 
general  knowledge  will  be  considered  a  necessary  part 
of  the  equipment  of  every  school. 

The  Study  of  Things. — When  investigation  began 
to  be  made  into  the  nature  of  the  mind's  action,  it  was 
found  that  the  intelligent  study  of  things  took  prece- 
dence of  all  other  kinds  of  knowledge.  We  have  al- 
ready shown  the  relations  of  this  kind  of  study  to  men- 
tal development,  and  we  here  have  only  to  give  a  brief 
summary  of  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  this  course. 

Cultivation  of  Perception. — In  no  way  can  the  per- 
ceptive faculties  be  cultivated  so  surely  as  by  the  study 
of  natural  objects.  Such  objects  range  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex,  and  they  are  found  in  almost  infinite 
variety.  By  the  study  of  them  the  observing  powers 
have  an  ample  field  for  exercise,  and  the  exact  stimulant 
necessary  to  excite  them  to  activity. 

Basis  of  Experience. — The  observation  of  objects 
and  of  the  phenomena  of  Nature  gives  a  basis  of  fact 
derived  from  actual  experience  which  enables  the  pupil 
to  understand  his  subsequent  study  from  books.  From 
his  observation  of  elementary  forms,  he  can  understand 
descriptions  which  involve  very  complex  combinations 
of  forms  ;  and  from  the  observation  of  the  facts  concern- 
ins:  elevation,  the  flow  of  streams,  and  the  changes  of 
the  weather,  he  can  understand  the  physical  geography 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION  COMPARED.  179 

and  climate  of  countries  which  he  can  never  visit. 
"Without  primary  experience,  however,  the  descriptions 
of  these  regions,  no  matter  how  vivid  they  might  be,  to 
him  would  become  a  mass  of  unmeaning  words. 

Materials  of  Thought. — In  regard  to  knowledge  it- 
self, this  study  of  things  furnishes  the  mind  with  the 
materials  upon  which  thought  can  be  expended.  It 
gives  a  solid  foundation  for  all  future  acquirements; 
and  when  carried  out  to  its  proper  extent,  this  foundation 
is  made  broad,  and  entirely  adequate  for  all  purposes. 

Experiment  and  "Work. — The  old  education  was 
regarded  as  the  very  antithesis  of  work.  It  was  only 
after  an  experience  of  centuries  that  the  idea  began  to 
be  entertained  that  one  part  of  education  was  to  fit 
men  for  the  performance  of  their  daily  duties  ;  and  not 
until  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  were 
there  made  any  provisions  in  the  schools  for  the  special 
training  of  the  working-cla 

Technical  Schools. — The  claims  of  work  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  national  educational  systems,  though  tar- 
dily and  grudgingly  recognized,  have  at  length  been 
admitted  to  some  degree  in  most  civilized  countries 
Agricultural  schools  on  the  general  plan  of  I)e  Fellen- 
berg  are  quite  common;  and  in  Germany  liberal  provis- 
ions are  made  for  the  support  of  trade  schools,  to  im- 
mediately follow  primary  instructions,  and  for  technical 
schools  of  a  higher  character.  In  France,  also,  technical 
education  has  received  conspicuous  encouragement. 

Superiority  of  Educated  Workmen. — At  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1867,  the  manufactured  articles  from  the 
different  countries  were  brought  together  and  compared. 


180         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

It  was  found  that  in  nearly  every  department  of  indus- 
try, so  far  as  both  design  and  workmanship  are  con- 
cerned, the  artisans  of  France  and  Germany  surpassed 
those  of  England,  though  the  latter  had  greatly  the  ad- 
vantage in  inherited  aptitude  and  in  individual  experi- 
ence. This  result  showed  the  superiority  of  educated 
over  ignorant  workmen,  and  it  stimulated  the  English 
people  to  great  exertions  in  the  establishment  of  schools 
for  the  benefit  of  their  manufacturing  operatives.  The 
same  result  has  tended  materially  to  extend  technical 
schools  everywhere. 

Work  in  the  kindergarten. — In  the  kindergarten 
system,  it  has  been  shown  that  all  kinds  of  bodily  ac- 
tivity can  be  turned  to  good  account  in  the  process  of 
educating  children,  and  that  these  activities,  beginning 
in  spontaneous  plays,  may  be  made  to  glide  insensibly 
into  profitable  work.  This  work  gives  mechanical  skill, 
and  at  the  same  time  becomes  a  means  of  intellectual 
development. 

The  Next  Stej)  Demanded. — The  next  important  step 
forward  in  education  is  to  arrange  courses  of  study  for 
the  primary  and  advanced  school  that  shall  embody  the 
kindergarten  principle,  and  culminate  in  the  skill  which 
is  now  obtained  only  in  the  technical  schools.  In  the 
latest  revision  of  the  Prussian  normal  schools,  this 
principle  has  been  partially  recognized  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  branches  of  industry — gardening  and  silk- 
culture — as  a  regular  part  of  the  course  <of  instruction. 

The  problem  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  introducing 
work  or  industrial  art  in  school  is  in  part  solved  by  the 
experiments  made  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, upon  the  Russian  system  of  industrial  education. 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION   COMPARED.  181 

By  this  system,  the  work  in  wood  and  iron  is  analyzed, 
and  eacli  department  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  taught  in 
classes,  the  same  as  other  branches  of  study.  The  suc- 
cess at  the  Institute  has  been  very  great,  and  the  same 
general  methods,  carried  out  in  an  inexpensive  way,  will 
be  found  applicable  to  common  schools. 

Hand  and  Brain  Culture. — The  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  making  hand-culture  go  along  side  by  side 
with  brain-culture  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

First:  By  handling  objects,  a  greater  interest  is  ex- 
cited and  a  deeper  impression  is  made.  As  nearly  as 
possible,  all  the  senses  are  aroused  to  activity,  and  all 
are  brought  to  bear  upon  one  object  and  made  to  con- 
tribute to  one  result. 

Secondly :  The  manipulation  of  materials  necessary 
to  work  leads  to  a  closer  investigation  in  regard  to  both 
the  qualities  and  the  relations  of  objects,  and  changes 
vague  notions  into  positive  knowledge.  It  corrects  those 
superficial  ideas  derived  from  the  study  of  words  alone, 
and  prevents  conclusions  from  narrow  premises. 

Thirdly :  It  trains  the  muscles  to  respond  immedi- 
ately to  the  will,  and  gives  skill  in  the  use  of  tools,  and 
in  handling  materials.  This  training  and  skill  may  be 
used  directly  in  the  work  which  has  furnished  the  prac- 
tice, or  it  may  be  used  indirectly  in  almost  any  < >t  1h-i- 
kind  of  hand  labor. 

Fourthly :  In  acquiring  skill,  the  intellect  is  excited, 
and  this  excitement  reacts  upon  the  muscles,  so  that 
skill  is  more  quickly  attained.  The  muscular  and  the 
intellectual  training  thus  mutually  assist  each  other.  If 
a  due  proportion  is  maintained  between  them,  neither 
being  carried  to  excess,  ir  is  evident   that  both  may  bo 


182         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

acquired  at  the  same  time,  and  that  the  time  spent  in 
the  acquisition  will  be  less  than  that  required  for  the 
development  of  either  when  the  two  are  separated. 

Fifthly:  The  dexterity  acquired  by  the  hand,  in 
fashioning  materials  into  implements,  utensils,  and  or- 
naments, is  a  never-failing  source  of  delight,  and  it  fur- 
nishes pleasant  and  profitable  occupation,  which  would 
otherwise  be  passed  in  idleness  or  dissipation. 

General  Summary. — The  great  problem  which  is 
now  set  for  the  solution  of  teachers  is,  how  to  harmo- 
nize the  ideas  contained  in  these  separate,  rival,  and  ap- 
parently antagonistic  systems.  That  some  important 
truth  is  embodied  in  each  one,  is  probable  from  the  fact 
that  each  has  its  strong  advocates,  and  each  has  its  meas- 
ure of  success.  To  eliminate  the  distinct  principle  in- 
volved in  each,  and  to  give  to  this  principle  its  exact 
value,  is,  at  the  present  time,  exceedingly  difficult. 

Reversing  the  order  in  which  these  systems  have 
been  examined,  we  see,  in  the  bodily  activities  mani- 
fested in  play  and  work,  agencies  and  forces  which  may 
be  used  in  educational  work.  These  forces  are  natural, 
and  therefore  proper  to  be  used;  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  constantly  obtruded  upon  our  notice 
seems  to  demand  of  us  a  faithful  recognition.  The  ex- 
periments made  in  this  direction  have  more  than  cor- 
roborated the  a  priori  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  these  forces  ;  and  work,  as  a  part  of  the  regular  exer- 
cises of  school,  will,  in  time,  undoubtedly  become  uni- 
versal. 

These  activities  must  have  materials  upon  which  they 
can  be  spent,  and  these  materials  are  the  things  that 


SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION  COMPARED.  183 

must  be  studied.  These  things  will  be  selected  in  ref- 
erence to  the  skill  to  be  acquired  in  their  manipulations, 
the  practical  value  of  the  knowledge  to  be  gained  from 
them,  and  the  character  and  fitness  of  the  mental  de- 
velopment which  they  afford. 

The  study  of  books  comes  in  and  supplements  the 
knowledge  gained  from  the  study  of  things.  Under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances,  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  knowledge  which  we  possess  must  come 
from  the  investigation,  experience,  and  reflection  of 
others  ;  and  this  knowledge  must,  to  a  large  extent,  be 
obtained  from  books.  To  exclude  books  from  a  school 
course  would  be  to  ignore  the  processes  and  results  of 
civilization.  Not  only  should  books  be  used,  but  they 
should  be  more  largely  and  generally  used  than  at  pres- 
ent ;  and  the  only  change  demanded  is,  that  no  attempt 
shall  be  made  to  get  more  out  of  them  than  they  con- 
tain, or  to  make  them  do  the  work  in  education  which 
can  only  come  from  experience  in  the  study  of  things. 

The  proper  cultivation  of  the  memory  is  not  only 
desirable,  but  indispensable.  Mental  development  would 
be  impossible  if  the  mind  did  not  have  power  to  retain 
the  knowledge  it  receives.  In  the  studv  of  things  it 
has  an  ample  field  for  exercise ;  and  when  this  study  is 
supplemented  by  hand-labor,  a  much  deeper  and  con- 
sequently more  lasting  impression  is  made.  The  rela- 
tions of  things,  in  the  infinite  variety  of  Nature,  furnish 
the  foundation  for  the  most  perfect  development  of  as- 
sociative memory;  and  should  any  mere  verbal  exercise 
be  considered  important,  it  may  be  found  in  committing 
to  memory  poetry,  or  poetic  prose,  in  which  noble  sen- 
timents and  truths  arc  embodied  in  beautiful  forms. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PHYSICAL     CULTURE. 

Introductory. — It  lias  been  well  stated  that  "  first 
of  all,  man  is  an  animal,  and  that  the  first  requisite  of 
success  in  life  is  to  be  a  good  animal."  In  this  state- 
ment the  fact  is  recognized  that,  in  regard  to  vital  pro- 
cesses, man  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  the  lower  ani- 
mals, and  that  the  perfection  of  his  manhood  depends 
upon  bodily  health  and  vigor.  A  failure  to  provide  for 
physical  culture,  or  to  observe  the  conditions  of  physi- 
cal well-being,  will  vitiate  all  educational  processes,  and 
render  abortive  all  attempts  to  reach  the  highest  intel- 
lectual and  moral  development. 

Opposing  Theories. — In  the  past,  two  theories  have 
been  held  in  regard  to  physical  culture.  The  one  is 
founded  upon  the  notion  that  there  is  a  natural  and  in- 
evitable antagonism  between  the  body  and  the  spirit, 
and  that  the  welfare  of  the  latter  is  in  inverse  ratio  to 
that  of  the  former.  The  advocates  of  this  theory  hold 
that  spiritual  matters  alone  are  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  intelligent  beings,  and  that  the  highest  spiritual  good 
is  promoted  by  thwarting  natural  desires,  and  by  "  mor- 
tifying the  flesh."     By  them,  a  half-developed  or  dis- 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  185 

cased  body  is  considered  rather  desirable  than  other- 
wise. 

The  second  theory  regards  physical  culture  as  the 
principal  end  of  education.  It  places  an  undue  estimate 
upon  the  highest  muscular  development,  and  it  turns  all 
the  vital  forces  into  this  one  channel  of  expenditure. 

The  reconciliation  of  these  antagonistic  views  may 
be  found  in  the  higher  intelligence  which  recognizes  in 
the  body  the  machinery  through  which  the  mind  must 
act,  and  which  sees  that  the  perfection  of  mental  action 
must  depend  upon  the  perfection  of  the  machinery 
through  which  it  manifests  itself.  This  idea  at  once 
disposes  of  the  old  notion  of  antagonism,  and  furnishes 
the  standard  by  which  we  judge,  both  of  the  importance 
and  the  limits  of  physical  culture.  It  makes  the  pos- 
session and  preservation  of  health  the  most  fundamental 
of  all  educational  ideas,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  shows 
that  physical  culture  should  be  limited  by  the  demands 
of  intellectual  and  moral  culture. 

Recognizing  the  intimate  relation  of  body  and  mind, 
the  physical  culture  demanded  by  education  should  have 
for  its  objects  the  full  growth  and  perfect  nurture  of 
the  body,  the  preservation  of  health  and  of  those  con- 
ditions best  calculated  to  promote  intellectual  and  moral 
vigor,  and  the  attainment  of  strength  sufficient  for  all 
the  ordinary  exigencies  of  life.  This  definition  excludes 
the  idea  that  in  our  educational  processes,  the  vital 
forces  should  ever  be  exhaustively  turned  in  the  direc- 
tion of  muscular  development, or  that  the  production  <>f 
athletes  is  a  legitimate  object  of  the  schools. 

Factors  of  I'hysical  Culture-  In  the  attainment  of 
physical  well-being,  four  distinct  factor-  are  to  be  con- 


18G         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

sidered  in  education :  intelligence  in  regard  to  the  laws 
of  life ;  sensibility  as  to  the  observance  of  them  ;  the 
disposition  of  educational  appliances  so  as  to  conform  to 
them ;  and  the  formation  of  habits  which  lead  to  an  un- 
conscious observance  of  them.  In  regard  to  the  intelli- 
gence and  sensibility,  the  teacher's  work  is  mostly  indi- 
rect, as  he  has  to  deal  with  actions  largely  beyond  his 
control,  and  has  to  approach  the  subject  through  intel- 
lectual and  moral  channels.  In  the  disposition  of  edu- 
cational material,  his  work  is  principally  advisory,  as 
authority  in  these  matters  rests  with  school  directors. 
The  direct  work  of  the  teacher  is  confined  to  legitimate 
schoolroom  exercises,  which  tend  to  the  formation  of 
proper  habits  to  be  observed  through  life. 

Scope  of  Instruction. — The  full  text  of  instruction, 
necessary  to  the  understanding  of  the  vital  processes, 
and  how  their  vigor  is  to  be  maintained,  is  found  only 
in  the  elaborate  treatises  upon  physiology  and  hygiene. 
In  the  present  work  there  is  space  only  for  a  general 
analysis  of  the  topics  to  be  treated,  and  a  few  princi- 
ples under  each  head,  for  the  double  purpose  of  show- 
ing the  importance  of  the  subject  and  of  stimulating  fur- 
ther inquiry  in  the  same  direction. 

Preparation  on  the  part  of  Teachers. — Xo  teacher 
should  enter  upon  his  professional  work  until,  from 
study  and  investigation,  he  is  familiar  with  physiologi- 
cal and  hygienic  laws.  Such  knowledge  is  much  more 
important,  both  to  him  and  his  pupils,  than  the  details 
of  arithmetic  and  grammar.  ^Without  this  knowledge, 
he  has  no  key  to  the  solution  of  the  problems  which  are 
of  daily  occurrence  in  school,  and  his  mistakes  and 
blunders  are  liable  to  be  of  so  serious  a  nature  as  to 


PHYSICAL   CULTURE.  187 

vitiate  his  whole  system  of  teaching.  With  this  knowl- 
edge, he  is  able  to  give  such  instruction  directly  in 
formal  lessons,  or  indirectly  by  a  seasonable  word  of  ad- 
vice, as  will  make  a  deep  and  lasting  impression.  The 
incidental  work  of  a  teacher  of  wide  culture  and  ear- 
nest convictions  will  form  no  inconsiderable  portion  of 
an  education  of  the  pupil  which  leads  to  an  appreciation 
of  physical  laws,  and  a  habitual  obedience  to  them. 

Food. — The  most  fundamental  agency  in  the  pro- 
motion of  physical  well-being  is  food.  From  food  is 
obtained  the  material  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the 
body,  and  for  the  supply  of  the  waste  occasioned  by 
muscular  and  mental  action.  In  considering  the  sub- 
ject, attention  should  be  given  to  the  kinds,  the  quality, 
the  quantity,  and  the  variety  of  food,  and  to  the  manner 
and  times  of  taking  it. 

Kinds  of  Food. — In  deciding  upon  the  kinds  of 
food  best  adapted  to  children,  it  would  be  well -to  follow 
the  example  of  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel  in  regard  to 
study,  and  learn  of  the  children  themselves.  What 
food  do  they  crave?  or,  "What  do  they  relish  I  are  ques- 
tions of  more  importance  than,  What  food  do  I  think 
they  need  ?  The  practice  of  denying  to  children  the 
food  which  they  most  crave  is  a  remnant  of  the  old 
asceticism  which  regarded  the  gratification  ef  natural 
desires  as  a  sin,  and  which  finds  its  logical  exponents 
in  the  seU-immolated  devotees  on  the  banks  of  the 
( ranges. 

The  custom  of  forbidding  sweets  and  vegetable  acids 
are  examples  in  point.  Modern  physiologists  show  that 
the  almost  universal  desire  of  children  for  these  tilings 


188  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

is  but  the  expression  of  a  universal  need,  and  that  to 
withhold  them  will  he  to  the  injury  of  the  child. 

It  may  be  stated,  as  a  general  principle,  that  the 
kind  of  food  craved  by  children  is  the  very  one  that  is 
most  needed  at  the  time  ;  and  that  we  should  regard 
with  grave  suspicion  any  sanitary  system  or  theory 
which  ignores  it. 

Limitation.  —  "While  the  general  principle  holds 
good,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  ill-regulated  desires  of 
every  child  are  to  be  taken  as  a  guide  in  supplying  him 
with  food.  These  desires  may  have  no  basis  in  real 
needs.  They  may  be  vicious,  from  an  inherited  ten- 
dency, from  the  results  of  abnormal  excesses,  or  from 
suppression  in  his  previous  experience.  These  aberra- 
tions, however,  are  exceptional,  and  should  not  be  taken 
as  an  index  of  normal  conditions,  nor  as  a  guide  to 
proper  control.  To  distinguish  between  the  expression 
of  natural  needs  and  abnormal  desires  will  require  a 
large  experience ;  and,  in  the  meantime,  it  is  safer  to  err 
on  the  side  of  liberty  than  on  that  of  restriction. 

Quality  of  Food. — The  food  of  children  should  be 
specially  nutritious.  With  adults,  the  special  function 
of  foods  is  to  repair  waste  ;  with  children,  it  has  the 
additional  function  of  promoting  growth,  and  hence  it 
needs  be  more  nutritious  for  the  latter  than  for  the 
former.  The  practice  of  supplying  children  with  coarse, 
innutritions  food,  is  in  every  way  mischievous.  It  di- 
minishes the  size  of  the  body,  or  the  quality  of  its  tis- 
sues, so  that  there  is  less  of  strength  and  vigor.  It  ne- 
cessitates an  unnecessary  amount  of  nervous  expendi- 
ture in  the  way  of 'digestion.  It  retards  vital  action  in 
other  directions,  and  renders  both  body  and  mind  slug- 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  189 

gish.  It  lays  so  poor  a  bodily  foundation,  as  to  seriously 
limit  future  physical  and  mental  possibility. 

Examples  illustrating  this  principle  may  be  found  in 
every  community.  The  families  that  are  supplied  with 
the  most  nutritious  diet  are  the  most  active,  physically 
and  mentally.  The  ill-fed  classes  of  city  or  country 
form  the  lower  or  inferior  stratum  of  society.  The  ill- 
fed  races  are  the  lower  races,  and  high  civilization  is 
possible  only  with  a  generous  diet. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  children,  while 
attending  school,  or  while  engaged  in  study,  should  be 
put  upon  a  low  diet.  The  waste  of  tissue  is  much  greater 
in  mental  than  in  muscular  action,  and  calls  for  food  of 
a  correspondingly  more  nutritious  quality.  The  student 
accustomed  to  exhausting  physical  labor,  and  to  the 
food  which  is  specially  adapted  to  muscular  waste,  may 
need  to  change  his  diet  when  commencing  study.  His 
changed  habits  call  for  a  change  of  food  which  shall  be 
richer  in  the  elements  of  nerve-tissue,  but  in  no  case 
should  he  choose  a  diet  lower  in  all  the  elements  of  nu- 
trition than  the  one  to  which  he  has  been  accustomed. 

Quantity  of  Food. — The  quantity  of  food  should 
be  ample  as  well  as  the  quality  excellent.  The  appetite 
of  a  healthful  child  is  proverbially  keen.  To  promote 
his  growth,  and  supply  the  waste  from  his  restless  activ- 
ity, a  large  amount  of  food  is  demanded. 

In  the  case  of  quantity  as  well  as  quality,  the  appe- 
tite of  the  child  should  largely  govern  the  supply,  and  nil 
arbitrary  restrictions  should  be  avoided.  Herbert  Spen- 
cer  says:  "Not  only  is  it  that  the  a  priori  reasons  for 
trusting  the  appetites  of  children  are  so  strong,  and 
that  the  reasons  for  distrusting  them  are  invalid,  but  it 


190         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

is  that  no  other  guidance  is  worthy  of  any  confidence. 
What  is  the  value  of  this  parental  judgment,  set  up  as 
an  alternative  regulator?  When  to  'Oliver  asking  for 
more '  the  mamma  or  governess  replies  in  the  negative, 
on  what  data  does  she  proceed  \  She  thinks  he  has  had 
enough.  But  where  are  her  grounds  for  so  thinking  ? 
Has  she  some  secret  understanding  with  the  boy's  stom- 
ach— some  clairvoyant  power  enabling  her  to  discern 
the  needs  of  his  body  ?  If  not,  how  can  she  safely  de- 
cide ?  Does  she  not  know  that  the  demand  of  the  sys- 
tem for  food  is  determined  by  numerous  and  involved 
causes — varies  with  the  temperature,  with  the  hygro- 
metric  and  with  the  electric  state  of  the  air,  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  exercise  taken,  according  to  the  kind  and 
quality  of  the  food  eaten  at  the  last  meal,  and  according 
to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  last  meal  was  digested  ? 
How  can  she  calculate  the  result  of  such  a  combination 
of  causes  ?  In  truth,  this  confidence  with  which  most 
parents  take  upon  themselves  to  legislate  for  the  stom- 
achs of  their  children  proves  their  unacquaintance  with 
the  principles  of  physiology.  If  the}7  knew  more,  they 
would  be  more  modest.  '  The  pride  of  science  is  hum- 
ble when  compared  with  the  pride  of  ignorance.'  " 

Yariety  of  Food. — Natural  or  unvitiated  relish  is  a 
fair  indication  of  the  food  most  needed  at  the  time.  A 
single  kind  of  food  exclusively  used  soon  loses  its  relish, 
which  shows  that  something  is  lacking  in  providing  for 
the  needs  of  the  system.  Usually  good  relish  is  a  ne- 
cessity to  good  digestion.  The  appetite  of  children  is 
keener  and  more  sensitive  than  that  of  adults,  and  while 
it  is  easily  gratified,  it  more  quickly  palls  upon  a  monot- 
onous diet.     The  remark  of  the  countryman  that  "  he 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  191 

could  eat  liver  for  fifty  or  sixty  meals,  but  would  not 
like  it  for  a  steady  diet,"  is  but  the  application  of  the 
general  law  to  a  particular  case. 

An  analysis  of  food  shows  that  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  different  kinds. 
Some  foods  are  entirely  lacking  in  some  of  the  elements 
necessary  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  tissues  of  the  body, 
and  if  exclusively  used,  the  person  starves  to  death  as 
certainly,  if  not  quickly,  as  though  he  had  been  entirely 
deprived  of  food.  In  the  use  of  such  foods,  variety  is 
essential  to  the  continuance  of  life. 

Food  should  also  be  adapted  to  the  changes  of  cli- 
mate. In  cold  weather  an  excess  of  heat-producing 
food  is  demanded,  and  in  summer  this  kind  of  food 
should  be  reduced  to  its  minimum.  To  continue  the 
same  diet  in  summer  that  is  best  adapted  to  winter  is 
to  risk  the  raising  of  the  temperature  of  the  body  to 
the  fever-point.  Persons  engaged  in  manual  labor  need 
the  foods  that  are  rich  in  muscle-producing  properties; 
while  those  engaged  in  study  demand  foods  that  con- 
tain a  greater  proportion  of  nerve-matter. 

The  best  foods  are  those  which  are  best  relished  by 
a  normal  appetite,  and  which  contain  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  nutritious  elements  in  the  proper  proportion. 
The  three  kinds  of  food  which  are  nearest  perfect  in 
their  constituents  are  milk,  the  lean  flesh  of  beef,  and 
the  entire  grain  of  the  wheat.  These  will  sustain  life 
longer,  without  change,  than  any  other  foods. 

Caution  to  he  Observed. — The  conditions  of  families 
greatly  vary,  and  the  habits  of  pupils  depending  upon 

these  conditions  also  vary.  Some  have  nutritious  food 
plentiful  in  supply  and  agreeable  in  variety,  and  their 


192         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

entire  system  has  a  vigorous  tone,  and  they  are  in  a  con- 
dition to  respond  to  any  reasonable  demands  made  upon 
them.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  are  poorly  supplied  with 
food,  and  in  consequence  their  nerves  lack  vigor  and 
their  muscles  strength.  To  lay  the  same  burden  upon 
the  latter  as  upon  the  former  would  be  an  injustice,  and  to 
bestow  praise  and  censure  for  attainments  and  for  good 
conduct  equally  in  the  two  cases  would  also  be  unjust. 
Teachers  who  would  deal  justly  with  all,  and  who  would 
reach  the  highest  success,  should  make  themselves  fa- 
miliar with  the  conditions  and  habits  of  each  individual 
pupil,  so  that  they  can  make  the  necessary  allowances 
and  discrimination. 

Time  for  Taking  Food. — Regularity  in  eating  is  an 
important  element  in  the  preservation  of  health.  The 
stomach,  like  the  other  organs  of  the  body,  requires  time 
to  allow  its  forces  to  recuperate,  and  periods  of  rest 
should  follow  periods  of  activity.  If  stimulated  to  con- 
stant activity  by  the  continual  presence  of  food,  its 
action  becomes  languid,  and  it  performs  its  functions 
imperfectly,  deranging  the  whole  economy  of  the  sys- 
tem. 

It  is  impossible  to  establish  a  fixed  rule  that  will  de- 
cide for  all  persons  the  exact  times  for  eating.  The 
following  principles,  however,  seem  to  be  well  estab- 
lished, and  should  serve  as  a  guide  in  fixing  the  periods 
for  each  one :  Food  should  be  taken  often  enough  to 
satisfy  hunger ;  it  should  be  taken  regularly  and  at  such 
intervals  as  will  allow  ample  time  for  digestion,  and  the 
full  recuperation  of  the  stomach  from  the  effects  of  its 
activity.  Children  need  food  more  frequently  than 
adults,  but  with  the  same  regularity.     The  intervals  be- 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  193 

tween  meals  will  vary  with  the  varying  conditions  of 
climate,  occupation,  and  health.  While  the  practice  of 
eating  a  hearty  meal  just  before  going  to  bed  is  a  per- 
nicious one,  it  is  better  to  take  a  little  food  into  the 
stomach  at  that  time  than  to  go  to  bed  hungry.  Chil- 
dren at  school,  and  especially  the  younger  ones,  may  need 
to  eat  before  the  noon  intermission,  and  a  time  should 
be  assigned  them  for  that  purpose  ;  but  the  practice  of 
eating  at  any  time  and  at  all  times  should  not  be  per- 
mitted. 

Manner  of  Taking  Food. — The  process  of  eating 
should  proceed  deliberately.  Perfect  digestion  requires 
perfect  mastication.  The  muscular  action  necessary  to 
perfect  mastication  stimulates  the  salivary  glands,  and 
induces  a  flow  of  saliva,  which  not  only  lubricates  the 
food  so  that  it  can  be  easily  swallowed,  but  which  per- 
forms an  important  office  in  digestion.  Rapid  eating 
and  insufficient  chewing  do  not  induce  a  sufficient  flow 
of  saliva,  and  hence  an  extra  amount  of  labor  is  im- 
posed upon  the  stomach,  producing  exhaustion  and  de- 
rangements. 

Miscellaneous  Suggestions. — Food  should  not  be 
taken  when  the  body  is  exhausted  by  labor,  physical  or 
mental.  A  short  interval  of  rest  should  precede  the  eat- 
ing, to  allow  the  vital  forces  to  recover  their  tone,  other- 
wise the  food  lies  in  the  stomach  along  time  undigested, 
or  is  rejected  altogether.  Time  should  be  given  for  diges- 
tion before  work  is  resumed.  Complete  digestion  de- 
mands vital  force;  and  if  this  force  is  diverted  to  mus- 
cular or  mental  action,  digestion  is  retarded  or  altogeth- 
er ceases.  It  is  better  to  have  a  short  period  of  com- 
plete repose  after  meals,  and  especially  after  dinner. 
9 


194  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

These  principles  are  well  understood  in  regard  to  horses. 
A  man  would  be  considered  as  lacking  in  common  sense 
who  would  feed  his  horse  immediately  after  an  exhaust- 
ing drive,  or  who  would  put  him  to  hard  work  or  drive 
him  rapidly  immediately  after  eating.  The  same  law 
should  be  heeded  in  regard  to  men.  Teachers  should 
recognize  it,  and  never  demand  of  their  pupils  exhaust- 
ive mental  labor  immediately  after  eating. 

Use  of  Drinks. — Water  taken  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties and  at  proper  times  is  a  necessity  of  existence.  It 
moistens  dry  food  so  as  to  render  it  digestible,  and  it 
supplies  the  waste  caused  by  perspiration.  The  quan- 
tity of  drink  necessary  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the 
food  taken,  the  general  temperature,  and  the  amount  of 
the  work  done.  Most  writers  upon  physiology  condemn 
the  habit  of  drinking  largely  at  meal-time.  If  the 
drink  is  freely  mingled  with  the  eating,  swallowing  is 
performed  with  insufficient  mastication,  and  without  the 
flow  of  saliva  necessary  to  perfect  digestion.  If  a  large 
quantity  of  fluid  is  taken  into  the  stomach  at  the  close 
of  the  meal,  the  gastric  juice  is  diluted,  and  digestion 
is  retarded,  until  the  extra  fluid  is  absorbed.  The  rule 
would  seem  to  be  moderate  drinking  at  the  close  of 
meals. 

Frequent  drinking  at  irregular  intervals  is  a  habit 
almost  as  pernicious  as  that  of  irregular  eating.  It  an- 
swers to  no  real  need,  and  should  not  be  permitted. 
Drinking  large  quantities  of  ice-water  or  very  cold 
water  is  pernicious,  as  it  absorbs  the  heat  from  the 
stomach,  and  arrests  digestion  until  the  proper  tempera- 
ture is  recovered.  Teachers  can  easily  regulate  the 
drinking  of  pupils  when  in  school.     In  warm  weather 


PHYSICAL   CULTURE.  195 

and  after  violent  exercises  which  have  caused  perspira- 
tion, drink  is  a  necessity.  In  general  the  pupils  may  be 
permitted  to  drink  at  stated  intervals,  depending  upon 
the  above  conditions.  Drinking  at  other  times  should 
be  discouraged,  as  interfering  with  the  order  of  the 
school,  and  as  generally  injurious  to  the  pupil  in  the 
formation  of  habits.  This  regulation  should  not  be  made 
an  inflexible  rule,  for  needs  must  decide  in  each  case,  and 
the  pupil  must  be  permitted  to  interpret  his  own  needs. 
I ''>  rnicious  Drinks. — In  this  age,  when  appetite  in 
regard  to  drink  is  largely  indulged,  without  consideration 
of  consequences  either  to  the  person  or  to  society,  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  great  moment  to  know  what  to 
avoid  as  well  as  what  to  use.  It  is  now  well  established 
that,  in  our  climate,  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquor 
as  a  beverage  is  hurtful  in  many  ways.  It  injures  the 
person  using  it  by  lowering  the  general  tone  of  the  sys- 
tem ;  by  creating  unnatural  desires,  which  increasingly 
demand  gratification;  by  turning  vital  forces  to  almost 
exclusively  sensuous  ends;  by  inducing  neglect  of  the 
culture  of  the  higher  powers,  and  blindness  to  thrift 
and  to  domestic  and  social  duties.  So  great  is  the  train 
of  evils  which  flow  from  habits  of  drink,  and  of  so  doubt- 
ful a  character  and  of  so  little  moment  are  the  benefits 
which  are  claimed  for  it,  that  we  may  regard  the  for- 
mation of  such  habits  as  the  negation  of  physical  and 
spiritual  well-being.  The  question  is  one  in  which  edu- 
cators are  directly  interested.  Any  system  of  educa- 
tion would  be  justly  regarded  as  imperfect  that  either 
ignored  this  subject, or  left  a  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  in  regard  to  the  degrading  tendency  of  the  habit- 
ual use  of  intoxicating  liquor*. 


196         PRINCIPLES   AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

The  teacher  can  do  much  indirectly  and  incidentally 
toward  creating  a  healthful  public  sentiment  among  his 
pupils  in  regard  to  this  subject.  Very  few  of  the  pupils 
who  attend  our  public  schools  have  acquired  a  taste  for 
liquor  or  a  habit  of  drinking.  There  seems  to  be  among 
them  a  natural  and  well-founded  repugnance  to  drunk- 
enness. By  a  seasonable  word  of  advice,  and  by  indi- 
rect allusions  to  the  subject,  this  repugnance  may  be 
heightened,  and  the  feeling  rendered  so  strong  as  to  be- 
come a  safeguard  in  that  critical  period  of  life  when 
temptations  are  strongest.  With  advanced  pupils,  more 
direct  measures  may  be  pursued.  In  connection  with 
physiology,  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  nerves  and 
bodily  tissues  should  be  fully  set  forth.  In  general  ex- 
ercises discussing  moral  questions  and  the  laws  of  con- 
duct, it  should  be  shown  that  the  formation  of  vile  per- 
sonal habits  indirectly  affects  morals  by  the  bad  example 
set,  by  diminishing  the  power  of  the  individual  to  per- 
form his  duties,  and  by  the  stimulus  given  to  his  lower 
propensities.  The  same  habit  becomes  directly  immoral 
by  imposing  upon  the  community  the  burdens  of  support 
which  belong  to  the  individual.  The  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks  to  any  extent  produces  no  good,  and  there  is  im- 
minent danger  that  it  may  produce  evil;  hence  it  is 
better  to  shun  it  altogether. 

Tobacco. — Although  tobacco  is  not  a  food,  its  use 
may  be  considered  in  this  connection.  Like  alcoholic 
liquors,  it  is  an  artificial  stimulant  or  narcotic,  which,  to 
a  man  in  health,  is  never  a  benefit,  but  always  an  injury. 
Although  its  use  is  so  common,  it  answers  to  no  univer- 
sal human  need,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  with  women, 
who  constitute  one-half  of  the  race,  its  use  is  very  limit- 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  197 

ed,  and  is  decreasing  with  each  generation.  The  habit- 
ual use  of  tobacco  so  deranges  the  functions  of  the  body 
that  it  creates  a  passionate  desire,  which  tobacco  alone  can 
gratify.  It  turns  certain  of  the  excretions  of  the  body 
away  from  their  proper  organs  to  the  salivary  glands, 
and  ejects  them  from  the  mouth.  It  induces  habits  of 
filthiness  and  vitiates  the  breath,  and  so  becomes  an 
offense  to  others.  It  is  an  expense  which,  in  many  in- 
stances, entails  essential  privations  upon  the  person  or 
family,  and  in  every  case  diminishes  the  ability  to  ex- 
pend for  good  purposes.  Whether  considered  in  its 
relations  to  the  individual,  to  society,  or  to  posterity,  it 
is  a  foul  offense,  and  in  every  legitimate  way  it  should 
be  discouraged. 

Habits  of  the  Teacher. — Of  course,  no  person  ad- 
dicted to  the  use  of  strong  drink  or  tobacco  should  ever 
presume  to  take  upon  himself  the  office  of  teacher.  His 
example,  so  powerful  for  evil,  will  go  far  to  render  nu- 
gatory any  teaching  of  his  that  bears  upon  moral  con- 
duct. It  is  doubtful,  on  the  whole,  whether  ignorance 
of  the  ordinary  branches  taught  in  school  would  not  be 
preferable  to  intelligence  accompanied  by  habits  which 
go  so  far  to  derange  the  whole  physical  economy,  and 
diminish  the  possibilities  of  life. 

The  prevalence  of  this  habit  in  community,  and  the 
approval  given  to  it  by  the  example  of  politicians,  doc- 
tors, lawyers,  and  even  by  ministers  of  the  ( Jo-pel,  make 
it  more  imperative  upon  the  teacher  to  use  all  the  means 
which  "  Nature  and  Providence  have  put  in  his  hands'" 
to  diminish  this  evil,  lie  maybe  sure  that  his  teachings 
and  inlluencc  in  this  direction  will  be  the  true  evangels 
of  purity  and  beneficence. 


198         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Warmth. — The  next  agency  to  be  considered  as  pro- 
moting physical  well-being  is  warmth.  The  temperature 
of  the  body  must  be  maintained  within  certain  narrow 
limits,  or  serious  injuries  result.  As  internal  heat  is  the 
result  of  the  action  of  the  vital  forces  upon  food,  it  has 
already  been  sufficiently  noticed ;  but  external  heat,  its 
sources,  its  degree,  and  its  conditions,  need  further  dis- 
cussion. In  climates  where  the  temperature  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  nearly  uniform,  and  closely  coincides  with 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  this  subject  needs  but  little 
attention ;  but  in  a  climate  like  ours,  subject  to  great 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  health,  and  even  the  continu- 
ance of  life,  depends  upon  our  ability  to  maintain  a 
nearly  equal  temperature  in  spite  of  the  changes  of  the 
atmosphere.  We  secure  this  uniformity  by  means  of 
clothing,  houses,  and  artificial  processes  of  heating. 

Clothing. — In  summer,  clothing  is  needed  to  keep 
out  external  heat,  and  in  winter  to  prevent  the  too  rapid 
radiation  of  the  heat  of  the  body ;  and  to  perform  these 
various  uses,  it  needs  to  vary  in  material,  quantity,  and 
color.  Summer  clothing  should  permit  the  free  circula- 
tion of  air,  and  reflect,  rather  than  absorb,  heat;  and 
for  these  purposes  it  needs  be  thin  and  of  a  light  color. 
Winter  clothing  should  protect  the  entire  body,  and  es- 
pecially the  extremities,  against  the  cold ;  and  for  this 
purpose  it  needs  be  sufficient  in  quantity,  and  of  a  ma- 
terial that  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat. 

Materials  for  Clothing. — Experience  has  shown  that 
light  cotton  and  linen  fabrics  best  answer  the  purposes 
of  summer  clothing,  while  thick,  dark,  woolen  fabrics  are 
best  adapted  to  winter.  When  the  fibre  of  cotton  or 
linen  is  twisted  and  woven,  the  fabric  becomes  a  good 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  109 

conductor  of  heat ;  and  when  the  outside  temperature  is 
less  than  that  of  the  body,  it  always  feels  cool.  In  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  however,  it  affords  poor  protec- 
tion;  and  with  cotton  or  linen  clothing,  there  should 
always  be  an  accompanying  shade.  When  the  fibre  of 
these  materials  is  loosely  held  together  between  thin 
sheets  of  fabric,  as  in  quilts,  the  amount  of  air  contained 
makes  it  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  protects  against 
the  cold  by  preventing  the  escape  of  the  heat  of  the 
body.  Wool  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  hence 
forms  the  best  material  out  of  which  clothing  can  be 
made  to  protect  from  the  cold.  AVroolen  clothing  is  also 
worn  as  protection  when  exposed  to  great  external  heat 
or  to  sudden  changes,  as  in  some  manufactures. 

Relations  of  Clothing  to  Food. — Food  is  the  source 
of  internal  heat,  while  clothing  is  one  of  the  principal 
means  by  which  this  heat  is  conserved  and  regulated. 
By  insufficient  clothing  heat  is  wasted,  and  there  follows 
a  demand  for  a  greater  supply,  which  in  turn  demands 
more  food.  Intelligent  farmers  understand  this  prin- 
ciple, and  save  food  by  giving  their  stock  proper  shelter. 
Persons  exposed  to  the  weather  in  winter  will  require 
more  food  than  those  who  are  within  doors.  Children 
thinly  clad  require  most  food;  and  it  so  happens  that 
often  where  food  is  most  scanty,  most  food  is  demanded. 
To  diminish  the  amount  of  food,  and  of  clothing  at  the 
.same  time,  must  result  in  diminished  vitality. 

Changes  of  Temperature. — Sudden  changes  in  tem- 
perature are  experienced  hotli  by  the  change  of  weather 
ami  by  going  from  a  warm  room  into  the  cold  without. 
When  the  temperature  is  suddenly  lowered,  a  chill  is 
produced,  which  closes  the  pores  of  the  skin,  arrests  the 


200         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIEntG. 

insensible  perspiration,  and  throws  the  excretions  of  the 
skin  to  some  of  the  vital  organs.  This  produces  the 
derangements  which  are  called  colds,  and  which  are  so 
often  the  precursors  of  more  serious  and  even  fatal  dis- 
eases. To  the  end  of  preserving  against  chill,  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  make  change  of  clothing  conform 
to  change  of  temperature.  Adequate  outer  garments 
should  be  put  on  when  going  from  a  warm  room  into 
the  cold  air,  and  these  should  be  taken  off  when  coming 
into  the  room  again.  During  the  season  of  shifting 
conditions  of  climate,  it  is  better  to  wear  flannel  under- 
clothing, which  may  be  a  little  uncomfortable  for  the 
warmest  days,  or  parts  of  the  day,  but  which  is  almost 
complete  protection  against  sudden  chill. 

Sanitary  Suggestions. — In  winter  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  protect  the  extremities  from  the  cold.  For  this 
purpose,  adequate  under-clothing  and  thick  warm  boots 
or  shoes  are  indispensable.  Girls  usually  are  clothed 
less  warmly  than  boys,  and  in  consequence  suffer  more 
from  exposure.  This  is  an  evil  which  should  be  reme- 
died. When  pupils  are  heated  from  exercise,  they  should 
not  be  permitted  to  sit  down  in  a  draft  or  in  a  cold  place. 
At  the  close  of  an  exercise  in  a  cold  day,  it  is  safer  to 
rest  in  a  warm  room,  or  at  once  to  put  on  extra  clothing. 

The  room  in  which  pupils  sit  at  recitation  or  study 
should  have  a  uniform  temperature  of  about  70°.  Dur- 
ing the  periods  when  all  the  pupils  engage  in  jmysical 
exercise,  the  temperature  may  be  much  lower  than  this. 
Dampness  should  be  avoided.  AVhen  the  clothing  is 
wet  by  exposure  to  the  rain,  the  pupils  should  be  per- 
mitted to  dry  it  at  once,  even  if  the  order  of  the  school 
has  to  be  changed  for  that  purpose. 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  201 

Houses. — Houses  are  built  for  shelter  and  warmth, 
and  their  form,  structure,  and  materials,  need  intelligent 
attention.  In  the  construction  of  schoolhouses  econo- 
my is  often  carried  to  the  extreme  of  parsimony.  The 
objects  which  should  be  considered  in  their  building  are 
the  health,  comfort,  and  convenience  of  their  occupants, 
and  the  perfect  adaptation  of  the  structure  to  its  uses. 
But  these  objects  are  often  lost  sight  of  in  the  effort  to 
save  expense,  and  buildings  are  erected  unsightly  in  ap- 
pearance, flimsy  in  structure,  coarse  and  rough  in  finish, 
and  affording  inadequate  protection  against  the  cold. 
Matters  of  comfort,  convenience,  and  even  of  health, 
are  entirely  left  out  of  account,  and  rooms  are  erected 
so  small  as  to  force  pupils  into  uncomfortable  proximity 
to  each  other,  allowing  no  freedom  of  movement,  and 
providing  a  very  inadequate  supply  of  air. 

Necessary  Considerations. — First  of  all,  the  school- 
house  should  be  well  built,  both  for  the  direct  benefit 
to  the  pupils,  and  for  purposes  of  economy  in  the  long 
run.  A  building  well  constructed  will  cost  a  little  more 
at  first,  but  it  will  not  need  repairs  so  soon  nor  so  often, 
and  it  will  last  much  longer  than  one  that  has  been 
scrimped  in  quality  of  materials  and  workmanship. 
True  economy  is  never  conserved  by  bad  work.  Walls 
of  stone  or  brick  are  better  than  of  wood,  as  they  Last 
longer,  and  are  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter. 
When  the  walls  are  constructed  of  wood,  they  need  a 
coating  of  sheathing-paper  beneath  the  weather-boards, 
or  an  internal  coat  of  plastering,  as  a  protection  in  ex- 
treme cold  weather.  The  foundation-walls  should  also 
be  built  entire  and  tight,  that  the  floor  may  be  kept 
warm. 


202         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIIXG. 

The  building  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  a  sep- 
arate seat  for  each  pupil,  and  perfect  freedom  of  move- 
ment of  pupils  and  classes,  so  that  there  need  be  no  in- 
terference with  each  other.  Room  should  also  be  ample 
for  the  use  of  apparatus,  for  the  study  of  specimens  in 
natural  history,  and  for  the  allowance  of  separate  space 
for  the  plays  of  the  younger  pupils.  The  room  needed 
for  air,  and  the  means  of  heating,  are  considered  under 
the  head  of  Yentilation. 

Light. — In  the  construction  of  a  schoolhouse,  the 
disposition  of  light  is  a  matter  of  prime  moment.  "Win- 
dows should  be  large  or  grouped  together,  so  as  to  afford 
opportunity  for  broad  masses  of  light  and  a  uniformity 
in  all  parts  of  the  room.  Small  windows,  placed  at  reg- 
ular intervals  with  considerable  space  between,  cause 
alternate  bands  of  light  and  shade  which  are  distinctly  ' 
visible,  and  a  shifting  condition  of  light  painful  to  the 
eyes.  The  light  from  large  windows  should  be  brought 
under  control  by  the  means  of  inside  blinds  which  move 
in  sections,  admitting  more  or  less  light,  according  to 
the  brightness  of  the  day,  and  from  any  part  of  the 
window  as  may  be  desired. 

Direction  of  Light. — It  is  much  better  to  admit  light 
upon  but  one  side  of  the  room.  If  windows  are  placed 
upon  more  than  one  side,  they  should  always  be  pro- 
vided with  blinds  which  will  effectually  exclude  the 
light  upon  one  side  when  necessary.  Cross-lights,  or 
windows  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  should  always 
be  avoided.  The  light  coming  to  the  eye  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  and  at  different  degrees  of  inten- 
sity, the  eye  is   continually  engaged  in  endeavoring 


PHYSICAL   CULTURE.  203 

to  adjust  itself  to  incompatible  conditions,  and  in  con- 
sequence, its  muscles  become  wearied  and  its  functions 
deranged. 

"Windows  should  never  be  placed  in  front  of  the  pu- 
pils. The  continual  glare  of  light  coming  directly  into 
the  eye,  without  any  chance  of  mitigation,  is  both  dis- 
agreeable and  injurious.  The  light  shines  into  the  eyes 
while  the  shade  is  cast  upon  the  book,  reversing  the 
conditions  that  are  most  desirable. 

The  seats  of  the  room  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  light  comes  in  on  the  left  side,  in  large  masses, 
so  modified  and  diffused  as  not  to  make  deep  shad- 
ows. This  arrangement  will  allow  the  book  to  be 
illuminated,  will  keep  the  eyes  in  partial  shade,  and 
will  allow  the  hand  to  write  without  an  interrupting 
shadow. 

Defective  Sight. — "Want  of  attention  to  the  proper 
arrangement  of  light  frequently  results  in  defective 
sight  on  the  part  of  pupils.  In  a  late  report  from  a 
commission  appointed  to  examine  the  upper  schools  in 
Germany,  it  was  stated  that  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the 
students  were  found  to  have  defective  vision,  directly 
traceable  to  the  bad  management  of  the  lights  in  the 
schoolroom.  This  result  may  come  from  want  of  suf- 
ficient light,  from  too  much  light,  from  cross-lights, 
from  front  lights,  and  from  changing  lights.  Windows 
are  as  easily  arranged  properly  as  improperly,  and  the 
only  additional  expense  necessary  to  secure  the  proper 
adjnstmenl  <>f  lights  is  that  of  the  interior  blinds.  Di- 
rect sunlight  in  the  room  is  very  desirable  on  account 
of  health,  if  the  rays  can  be  controlled  and  softened  by 
the  use  of  blinds. 


204         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Air  and  Ventilation. — The  ventilation  of  a  room 
includes  all  the  considerations  relative  to  the  circulation 
of  the  air,  and  to  the  artificial  means  of  heating.  In 
most  of  the  schoolrooms  throughout  the  country  little 
or  no  attention  is  given  to  ventilation,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, there  is  not  only  a  loss  in  diminished  results, 
but  a  positive  injury  in  the  form  of  various  diseases. 
This  evil  is  so  formidable,  and  so  nearly  universal,  that 
it  should  receive  particular  attention  from  teachers  and 
all  those  who  have  the  care  of  schools. 

Sources  of  Impure  Air. — The  great  mass  of  the  at- 
mosphere where  the  winds  have  free  circulation  is  con- 
sidered pure.  The  out-door  impurities  come  principally 
from  combustion,  stagnant  water,  and  from  decaying 
vegetable  and  animal  matter;  and  often  considerable 
sections  of  country  are  rendered  malarious  from  some 
of  these  causes.  The  winds,  however,  are  the  great 
purifiers,  and  injurious  gases  are  usually  dissipated 
nearly  as  soon  as  generated.  Even  swampy  regions 
would  soon  be  rendered  wholesome,  were  it  not  for 
the  continual  supply  of  malarious  matter  which  they 
furnish  ;  and  as  it  is,  the  air  is  contaminated  only  for  a 
short  distance  upward. 

In-door  Air. — In  the  room,  the  conditions  of  the  air 
are  very  different  from  without.  The  walls  and  ceiling 
necessary  for  protection  arrest  circulation,  and  impuri- 
ties accumulate.  These  impurities,  derived  from  com- 
bustion, and  from  the  breathing  and  insensible  perspira- 
tion of  its  inmates,  consist  of  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
animal  excretions,  both  of  which  are  deleterious  to 
health  even  in  very  small  quantities.  If  breathing  in  a 
confined  atmosphere  is  continued  long  enough,  carbonic 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  205 

acid  is  generated  in  sufficient  quantities  to  cause  death ; 
and  when  excretions  from  insensible  perspiration  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  to  any  considerable  extent,  the 
air  becomes  so  foul  and  offensive  as  to  be  almost  un- 
bearable. 

Conditions  to  be  Observed. — The  problem  to  solve 
in  ventilation  is  to  secure  and  preserve  an  uniform  tem- 
perature in  all  parte  of  the  room,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  secure  an  amount  of  circulation  of  the  air  that  will 
preserve  its  purity.  To  accomplish  these  results,  advan- 
tage must  be  taken  of  forces  incident  to  the  heating ; 
and  the  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus  must  be  so 
combined  that  the  objects  may  be  attained  in  the  most 
effective  and  economical  manner. 

Distribution  of  Heat. — The  heat  of  a  room  is  dis- 
tributed by  the  direct  radiation  from  the  heated  surface, 
and  by  the  circulation  of  heated  air.  With  radiation 
alone  the  supply  of  heat  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
room  is  very  unequal,  and  pupils  near  the  stove  are  un- 
comfortably warm,  while  those  at  the  greatest  distance 
arc  uncomfortably  cold.  Heated  air  rises,  and,  in  a 
room  heated  by  a  stove,  there  is  always  a  current  of 
warm  air  rising  by  the  stove,  and  corresponding  descend- 
in--  currents  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  room.  By  sur- 
rounding a  common  stove  with  a  jacket  of  slieet-iron, 
open  at  the  bottom  and  top,  the  ascending  current  of 
hot  air  becomes  more  pronounced,  the  intensity  of  ra- 
diation is  diminished,  and  the  heat  is  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed in  the  room. 

Distribution  of  finjuirifi-  8.  -Air  breathed  from  the 
lungs,  in  consequence  of  its  high  temperature,  usually 
rises  slightly,  but,  soon  parting  with  its  heat,  it  falls, 


206         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

because  laden  with  carbonic-acid  gas,  which  is  heavier 
than  air.  Afterward,  by  the  operation  of  the  law  of 
diffusion  of  gases,  it  gradually  mixes  with  the  rest  of 
the  air. 

Egress  of  Air. — "When  openings  are  made  at  the 
top  of  the  room,  the  heat  and  comparatively  pure  air 
escapes,  and  no  good  arises  except  in  case  the  room  is 
overheated.  Openings  at  the  bottom,  on  the  contrary, 
have  a  tendency  to  draw  off  the  colder  and  impure  air, 
and  will  do  so,  if  so  arranged  that  air  does  not  come  in 
instead  of  go  out.  As  the  room  is  always  full  of  air,  it 
follows  that  if  air  escapes,  an  equal  amount  must  come 
in.  Usually,  this  supply  from  without  finds  its  way 
through  the  crevices  of  the  windows  and  doors,  pro- 
ducing draughts  injurious  to  those  exposed  to  them. 

Ventilating  Arrangement. — To  make  a  successful 
system  of  ventilation  that  will  give  an  ample  supply  of 
air  without  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  heat,  it  is 
only  needful  to  observe  the  foregoing  conditions.  Let 
the  means  of  heating  be  a  common  stove  of  sufficient 
size.  Surround  this  stove  with  a  jacket  of  sheet-iron, 
reaching  the  floor  and  open  at  the  top.  Under  the 
stove  admit  a  current  of  air  from  without,  and  at  the 
bottom  of  the  room  have  openings  which  connect  by 
means  of  boxes  or  ducts  with  the  chimney.  The  size 
of  the  ducts  will  depend  upon  the  size  and  number  of 
the  occupants  of  the  room,  and  they  should  be  so  ad- 
justed as  to  allow  the  passage  of  more  or  less  air  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  With  space  in  the  room  that 
gives  each  pupil  250  cubic  feet  of  air,  at  least  300  cubic 
feet  for  each  pupil  should  be  admitted  every  hour. 

Method  of  Operation. — The  fire  kindled  in  the  stove 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  207 

disturbs  the  equilibrium  and  produces  an  upward  cur- 
rent. This  occasions  a  flow  of  pure  air  through  the 
cold-air  duct  at  the  bottom  of  the  stove,  which  becomes 
heated  in  ascending  between  the  stove  and  its  jacket, 
and  ascends  and  spreads  out  at  the  top  of  the  room, 
pressing  down  upon  the  cooler  air  beneath.  The  smoke 
and  heat  from  the  stove  produce  an  upward  current  in 
the  chimney-flue,  and  this  occasions  a  draught  through 
the  ducts  and  ventilating  registers  at  the  bottom  of  the 
room.  Two  forces  are  thus  brought  to  bear  to  empty 
the  room  of  its  cold  air — a  pressure  from  the  top  and  a 
draught  from  the  bottom.  If  this  simple  apparatus  is 
properly  adjusted,  the  connections  perfectly  made,  and 
the  flues  of  proper  size,  the  ventilation  will  be  ample, 
the  heat  will  be  evenly  distributed,  and  there  will  be 
the  minimum  waste  of  fuel. 

Cost  of  Construction. — The  three  items  of  expense, 
in  the  construction  of  this  apparatus,  above  that  of  a 
common  stove,  are  the  cold-air  duct,  the  ventilating- 
duct  connecting  with  the  chimney,  and  the  jacket  to 
inclose  the  stove.  Stoves  are  now  constructed  with 
reference  to  this  system  of  ventilation  which  contain 
within  themselves  the  two  features  of  exterior  covering 
and  ventilating-duet,  and  these  cost  no  more  than  equally 
good  stoves  of  the  common  kind.  This  reduces  the  ex- 
tra expense  to  the  cost  of  the  cold-air  duct.  Whatever 
may  be  the  expense  of  a  successful  system  of  ventila- 
tion, it  will  be  returned  a  hundredfold  each  year  in 
the  improved  health  of  the  pupils. 

Practical  Suggestions. — In  schools  where  no  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  ventilation,  the  teacher  must 
exercise  continual  vigilance  in  regard  to  the  air  in  the 


208         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

room.  The  attention  given  to  this  matter  should  be 
regular  and  systematic,  as  the  air  becomes  foul  by  such 
imperceptible  degrees  that  the  teacher  is  unconscious  of 
it  as  far  as  his  own  senses  are  concerned.  Coming  in 
from  without,  the  impurities  are  perceived  at  once. 
The  practice  of  opening  the  windows  at  the  top,  ex- 
cept in  case  the  room  gets  too  warm,  is  a  vicious  one. 
The  cold  air  coming  in  falls  at  once  to  the  floor,  exposing 
the  unprotected  heads  of  the  pupils  to  the  draughts,  and 
producing  chills  and  colds.  A  better  plan  is  to  open 
the  window  nearest  the  stove,  at  the  bottom,  the  cold 
air  falling  immediately  to  the  floor,  and  making  its  way 
to  the  stove.  At  the  end  of  each  hour  the  windows 
and  doors  should  be  opened  a  few  minutes  to  allow  a 
complete  change  of  air,  so  that  the  air  in  the  room  shall 
never  become  very  much  vitiated.  During  this  process 
the  pupils  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  their 
seats.  By  making  arrangements  for  calisthenic  exer- 
cises to  take  place  at  these  times,  two  important  advan- 
tages will  be  gained — a  room  filled  with  pure  air  and 
increased  muscular  vigor. 

Direct  Muscular  Training. — The  course  of  physi- 
cal culture  recommended  so  far  has  had  for  its  objects 
intelligence  in  regard  to  physical  laws,  the  arrangements 
of  conditions  most  favorable  to  their  observance,  and 
the  formation  of  habits  conforming  to  them.  There  re- 
mains the  question  of  how  much  may  be  done  for  direct 
muscular  training.  That  there  should  be  an  amount  of 
muscular  activity,  each  day  alternating  with  the  periods 
of  intellectual  activity,  is  obvious  from  the  relations 
which  are  seen  to  exist  between  bodily  health  and  vigor 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  209 

and  correct  thinking.  Study  determines  the  blood  to 
the  brain  ;  exercise  draws  it  to  the  extremities.  In  in- 
tellectual exercises  nervous  energy  is  concentrated  at 
the  nervous  centres ;  in  physical  exercises  it  is  diffused 
throughout  the  body.  Thought  and  emotion,  when  car- 
ried to  excess,  tend  to  disturb  the  functions  of  the  vital 
organs  through  the  action  of  the  sympathetic  nerves ; 
muscular  activity,  when  carried  to  excess,  equally  dis- 
turbs the  vital  functions  by  depriving  them  of  their 
proper  amount  of  nervous  stimulus.  Exclusive  devotion 
to  intellectual  pursuits,  with  a  corresponding  neglect  of 
the  physical,  will  reduce  the  physical  powers  to  their 
minimum,  and,  reacting,  will  diminish  the  intellectual 
powers  also.  Exclusive  devotion  to  muscular  exercise 
will  reduce  intelligence  to  its  minimum,  and,  reacting, 
will  diminish  the  physical  powers.  To  a  complete  de- 
velopment, both  are  needed  ;  the  one  is  complementary 
to  the  other,  and  each  affords  a  relief  from  the  weariness 
of  the  other.  In  schools,  which  from  their  very  nature 
give  prominence  to  intellectual  pursuits,  there  should  be 
sufficient  attention  given  to  physical  exercise  to  preserve 
the  proper  balance  of  vital  powers.  The  direct  means 
at  command  to  accomplish  this  purpose  are  calistheuic 
exercises,  and  the  training  for  work. 

Calisthenics. — Within  the  past  few  years  calisthenics 
have  been  introduced  into  schools,  and  among  the 
good  results  may  be  enumerated  the  following:  The 
weariness  of  long-continued  sitting  is  dispelled  ;  the 
nervous  restlessness  which  so  often  disturbs  the  order 
of  the  school  is  allayed  ;  headaches  and  other  tonus  of 
nervous  ailments  are  diminished  ;  the  tendency  to  dis- 
tortion incident  to  sitting  in  one  position  is  overcome  ; 


210         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

a  strong,  free,  and  vigorous  movement  is  substituted 
for  the  listless  shambling  or  the  nervous  jerking  which 
are  characteristics  of  schools  where  intellectual  work  is 
pushed  to  the  utmost  and  exercise  neglected ;  a  greater 
amount  of  intellectual  work  is  secured,  and  grace  of  at- 
titude and  gesture  is  developed. 

Kinds  of  Exercise. — The  kinds  of  exercise  best 
fitted  for  public  schools  are  the  free  calisthenics,  as 
given  in  any  of  the  manuals  upon  this  subject.  They 
include  movements  of  nearly  all  the  muscles  of  the  body 
arranged  in  regular  rhythmic  exercises  for  class  drill. 
Particular  attention  is  given  to  the  exercise  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arms  and  chest,  so  as  to  give  the  fullest  play 
to  the  lungs.  When  possible,  the  calisthenics  should  be 
accompanied  by  music,  either  vocal  or  instrumental,  so 
that  the  rhythm  may  be  fully  preserved.  In  default  of 
music,  the  simultaneous  movement  may  be  obtained  by 
counting. 

Calisthenic  Apparatus. — For  the  purposes  enumer- 
ated, little  apparatus  is  needed,  and  in  public  schools 
generally  the  arrangement  of  the  room  is  such  that  ap- 
paratus cannot  be  used.  Even  with  ample  room,  simple 
apparatus  is  best  for  school  purposes.  Wooden  dumb- 
bells, light  clubs,  wands,  rings,  and  bags  of  grain  not 
exceeding  four  pounds  each,  afford  all  the  exercise  that 
is  demanded,  and  the  variety  necessary  for  keeping  up 
the  interest.  By  means  of  these,  physical  culture  is 
obtained  through  a  series  of  light  and  rapid  movements, 
rather  than  by  the  heavy  gymnastics  which  require  a 
great  expenditure  of  muscular  force ;  and  the  ends  at- 
tained are  health  and  activity,  rather  than  the  greatest 
possible  physical  strength. 


PHYSICAL   CULTURE.  211 

Time  Given  to  Exercise. — Exercise  should  be  fre- 
quent and  not  of  long  duration.  In  primary  rooms  it 
may  with  propriety  be  made  to  alternate  with  eacli  of  the 
recitations.  In  the  higher  departments  and  in  ungraded 
schools,  twice  each  session,  about  five  minutes  should  be 
given  to  exercise,  the  time  varying  with  the  conditions 
of  the  school.  In  no  case  should  it  be  continued  to  the 
point  where  it  exhausts  instead  of  invigorates. 

Caution  to  he  Observed. — The  teacher  should  exer- 
cise a  careful  supervision  over  the  calisthenics,  and  no 
pupil  should  be  compelled  or  permitted  to  take  part  in 
them  when  ill,  or  when  there  is  a  liability  that  the  exer- 
cise will  produce  illness.  The  whole  subject  of  physi- 
cal exercise  has  often  fallen  into  disrepute  from  want  of 
care  in  this  direction. 

Rest. — Observation  and  experience  show  that,  after 
an  expenditure  of  vital  force,  time  is  needed  to  replace 
the  elements  used,  and  to  restore  the  organs  exercised 
to  their  full  vigor.  This  interval  for  the  recuperation, 
which  we  term  rest,  IS  as  important  an  element  of  human 
well-being  as  exercise.  The  law  Beems  to  be  that  every 
period  of  activity,  whether  physical  or  intellectual, 
should  be  followed  by  a  period  of  rest.  When  activity 
has  continued  toa  point  where  rest  is  clearly  demanded, 
we  are  said  to  be  tired,  and  rest  easily  restores  vigor. 
When  activity  continues  beyond  this  point,  vital  force 
is  derived  from  elements  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  organs  themselves,  and  we  become  weary — a 
state  which  ordinary  rest  will  not  redress.  Expenditure 
continued  to  the  point  of  excessive  weariness  BO  de- 
stroys the  vigor  of  the  system,  that  there  frequently 


212         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

happens  a  sudden  failure  of  the  nervous  functions 
throughout  the  body,  which  we  call  paralysis. 

Rest  of  Change. — When  one  set  of  muscles  or  facul- 
ties has  become  tired  from  use,  a  sense  of  rest  is  expe- 
rienced by  bringing  another,  set  into  action,  provided 
the  aggregate  vitality  at  command  has  not  been  exhausted. 
This  is  the  rest  of  change  or  variety  of  employment.  It 
is  the  method  of  relief  from  the  dreariness  of  monoto- 
ny, and  one  of  which  the  teacher  should  take  advantage 
in  the  arrangement  of  courses  of  study  and  daily  pro- 
grammes. Upon  this  principle  the  study  of  natural 
history  is  a  rest  from  the  study  of  mathematics,  and  cal- 
isthenics is  a  rest  from  all  intellectual  activity. 

Rest  of  the  Attention. — When  the  attention  is  fixed 
upon  one  subject  for  some  time  it  becomes  weary  in  one 
direction ;  and  if  given  to  a  series  of  subjects,  though 
each  may  afford  a  relief  to  the  other,  in  time  the  whole 
stock  of  vital  energy  which  is  at  the  service  of  attention 
is  exhausted,  and  the  attention  itself  needs  rest.  The 
power  of  sustained  attention  varies  with  age  and  de- 
velopment. Children  soon  weary  of  the  effort  to  fix 
their  attention,  and  for  this  reason  their  lessons  should 
continue  but  a  few  minutes  at  a  time  upon  one  subject, 
nor  for  any  considerable  time  upon  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects. Calisthenics  do  not  constitute  a  means  of  rest 
for  the  attention  when  tired,  as  they  themselves  require 
attention.  The  proper  rest  for  wearied  attention  in 
children  is  spontaneous  plays,  and  in  students  or  busi- 
ness-men is  the  entire  change  which  comes  in  the  sum- 
mer vacation  by  hunting,  fishing,  camping  out,  and  visits 
to  the  sea  or  mountains. 

Complete  Rest. — Every  human  being  has  a  certain 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  213 

amount  of  vital  force  which  he  can  spend  in  activities 
physical  or  intellectual,  beneficent  or  vicious,  in  work 
or  in  play.  If  spent  in  one  direction  it  cannot  be  spent 
in  another.  All  kinds  of  activity  are  exhaustive,  though 
not  in  equal  degree.  Exhaustive  physical  labor  prevents 
any  considerable  mental  activity,  and  exhaustive  men- 
tal labor  prevents  any  considerable  physical  activity. 
Dissipation,  whatever  form  it  may  assume,  is  not  only 
the  waste  of  vital  forces,  60  that  no  good  purpose  is 
possible,  but  it  is  usually  the  derangement  of  the  vital 
functions  diminishing  the  supply  of  force.  When  the 
stock  of  vitality  at  command  is  exhausted,  no  matter  by 
what  means,  complete  rest  is  demanded  in  the  form  of 
perfect  quiet. 

Daily  Rest  or  Sleep. — By  the  constitution  of  human 
beings  there  seems  to  be  an  amount  of  extra  vital  force 
at  command  each  day ;  and  when  the  day  ends,  the  force 
has  been  expended  in  some  form — wisely  in  conserving 
and  promoting  human  interests,  or  unwisely  in  dissipa- 
tion by  which  forces  are  wasted,  or  in  indolence  by  which 
they  are  expended  in  the  morbid  action  of  the  organs 
themselves.  This  daily  expenditure  calls  for  the  most 
perfect  form  of  rest — sleep.  During  Bleep  all  the  pow- 
ers are  recuperated,  and  vital  force  is  laid  up  for  the 
next  day's  use.  Regular  daily  undisturbed  sleep  is  a 
necessity  to  well-being;  and  study,  work,  business,  and 
play,  should  be  arranged  so  as  not  to  diminish  its  hours, 
or  in  any  way  to  interfere  with  it. 

Amount  of  Sleep. — The  amount  of  sleep  accessary 
to  the  full  recuperation  of  the  vital  powers  depends  apon 
several  conditions,  among  which  are  the  constitution  <»f 
the  person,  the  nature  of  the  employment,  and  the  de- 


214:         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

gree  of  the  exhaustion.  To  prescribe  the  same  number 
of  hours  of  sleep  for  all  would  be  as  absurd  as  to  pre- 
scribe the  same  amount  of  food  for  all.  When  tired 
but  not  weary,  the  proper  amount  of  sleep  refreshes  the 
person,  and  restores  his  powers  to  full  vigor.  Intellect- 
ual activities  in  an  especial  manner  call  for  plenty  of 
sleep,  and  pupils  in  school  should  be  instructed  never 
to  let  any  supposed  necessity  of  study  interfere  with 
their  natural  amount  of  sleep.  Nothing  is  more  detri- 
mental to  the  well-being  of  a  student  than  attempted 
study  when  sleep  is  needed.  Excessively  late  and  exces- 
sively early  hours  are  alike  injurious.  Besides  the  in- 
jury resulting  from  the  loss  of  sleep,  study  at  late  hours 
bears  but  little  fruit  in  the  way  of  mental  improvement. 
One  hour  of  study  in  full  vigor  is  worth  six  hours  when 
the  mind  is  half  asleep. 

Rest  from  Weariness. — When  activity  is  long  con- 
tinued, without  adequate  intervals  of  rest,  there  results 
a  general  exhaustion,  shown  by  a  weariness  which  sleep 
does  not  overcome.  The  only  remedy  for  this  is  perfect 
rest — an  entire  cessation  from  activities  that  demand  at- 
tention. In  the  complicated  arrangement  of  business 
affairs  there  often  comes  a  continued  strain  upon  the  at- 
tention, and  an  abnormal  expenditure  of  vital  force, 
which  exhausts  not  only  the  surplus  stock,  but  all  that 
the  organs  can  yield.  The  redress  of  the  weariness  that 
ensues  is  only  found  in  perfect  rest,  which  must  be  taken 
to  the  full  extent  of  restoration  of  vigor,  or  the  vital  func- 
tions will  be  permanently  impaired  or  altogether  cease. 

A  knowledge  of  rest  in  its  several  degrees  and  in  its 
relations  to  activities  is  of  vital  importance  to  teachers. 
Ignorance  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  redress  of  vi- 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  215 

tality  often  lead  to  absurd  practices.  In  the  olden  time, 
students  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  were 
obliged  to  get  up  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  to  attend  chapel  exercises,  observing 
divine  worship  by  the  disobedience  of  divine  law. 
Teachers  often  stimulate  pupils  to  an  undue  amount  of 
study,  by  assigning  too  long  lessons,  and  by  censure  ex- 
pressed or  implied  when  the  lesson  is  not  learned.  In 
schools  where  the  high-pressure  principle  in  regard  to 
study  prevails,  the  most  ambitious  and  delicately  organ- 
ized students  are  not  uncommonly  driven  so  hard  that 
their  powers  of  mind  fail,  and  they  either  sink  into  pre- 
mature graves,  or  pass  the  remainder  of  their  lives  the 
mere  wrecks  of  what  they  might  have  been.  In  assign- 
ing too  long  lessons,  the  mistake  of  the  teacher  arises 
from  judging  of  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  by  his  own, 
and  of  expecting  from  children  an  amount  of  work 
which  would  tax  the  capacity  of  adults.  "When  pupils 
have  attained  an  age  that  gives  them  the  power  of  in- 
dependent study,  the  direction  which  should  be  given 
them  is:  "Give  such  time  to  your  lessons  as  you  can 
without  encroaching  upon  your  sleep,  or  hours  of  nec- 
essary recreation,  and  the  amount  of  study  required 
shall  be  arranged  accordingly." 


CHAPTER   XII. 

^ESTHETIC    CULTURE. 

Nature  of  ^Esthetics. — In  intellectual  training  the 
end  is  to  ascertain  the  true — the  true  in  the  facts,  rela- 
tions, and  laws  of  both  the  physical  and  mental  worlds. 
In  morals,  the  end  sought  is  the  good,  which  upon  one 
side  expresses  the  true  in  human  relations,  and  upon  the 
other  converts  it  into  action.  In  aesthetics,  the  end 
sought  is  the  beautiful,  which  is  the  true  in  the  relations 
of  objects  and  their  qualities  as  they  affect  the  senses. 
The  true  includes  all  phenomena ;  the  good  relates  to 
human  conduct ;  and  the  beautiful  refers  to  objective 
relations  which  afford  pleasure.  The  three  are  so  united 
that  the  course  which  most  certainly  secures  either  is 
essential  to  the  highest  success  in  all,  and  that  sub- 
stantial attainment  in  each  is  necessary  to  the  highest 
attainment  in  the  others. 

^Esthetic  culture  includes  both  a  perception  of  the 
beautiful  as  it  exists,  and  also  the  ability  to  arrange  ele- 
ments in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  beautiful.  It 
is  not  only  an  appreciative,  but  a  creative  power.  Its 
highest  ends  are  attained  through  the  imagination,  and 
it  furnishes  one  of  the  principal  means  by  which  the 


AESTHETIC  CULTURE.  217 

imagination  is  cultivated.  The  [esthetic  sense  which  we 
call  taste,  while  greatly  differing  in  individuals,  can  al- 
ways he  improved  by  systematic  training. 

Standard  of  Beauty. — In  regard  to  the  origin  and 
nature  of  beauty,  and  the  standard  by  which  it  is  to  be 
judged,  there  are  two  general  theories.  One,  known  as 
the  intuitional,  claims  that  in  the  spiritual  world  there 
is  an  absolute  standard  of  beauty  ;  that  Nature  is  a  reali- 
zation of  this  standard  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  and 
that  the  human  mind  has  an  intuitive  perception  of 
the  correspondence  between  the  material  and  the  .spirit- 
ual whenever  it  occurs,  and  responds  to  the  ideal  stand- 
ard. As  natural  forms  approximate  to  the  ideal  stand- 
ard, they  are  said  to  be  beautiful  ;  as  they  fall  short  in 
this  respect,  they  are  regarded  as  ugly. 

Ruskins  Views. — Rnskin  takes  this  view  of  the 
origin  and  nature  of  beauty,  as  is  seen  in  the  following 
extract:  "Now  I  may  state,  that  beauty  has  been  a[>- 
pointed  by  the  Deity  to  be  one  of  the  elements  by 
which  the  human  soul  is  continually  sustained ;  it  is, 
therefore,  to  be  found  in  all  natural  objects ;  but  in  order 
that  we  may  QOt  satiate  ourselves  with  it,  and  weary  of 
it,  it  is  rarely  granted  to  us  in  its  utmost  degrees.  When 
we  see  it  in  those  utmost  degrees,  we  are  attracted  to  it 
strongly,  and  remember  it  long,  as  in  the  case  of  singu- 
larly beautiful  scenery  or  a  beautiful  countenance.  On 
the  other  hand,  absolute  ugliness  is  admitted  as  rarely 
as  perfect  beauty;  but  degrees  of  it,  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct, are  associated  with  whatever  has  the  nature  of 
death  and  sin,  just  as  beauty  is  associated  with  what  has 
the  nature  of  virtue  and  of  life. 

k>  What  Nature  does  generally  is  sun;  to  be  more  or 
10 


218  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

less  beautiful ;  what  she  does  rarely  will  either  be  very 
beautiful  or  absolutely  ugly ;  and  we  may  again  easily 
determine,  if  we  are  not  willing  in  such  a  case  to  trust 
our  feelings,  which  of  these  is  indeed  the  case,  by  the 
simple  rule  that,  if  the  occurrence  is  the  result  of  the 
complete  fulfillment  of  a  natural  law,  it  will  be  beauti- 
ful ;  if  of  the  violation  of  a  natural  law,  it  will  be  ugly." 

Experience  Theory. — The  other  theory  makes  beauty 
the  result  of  experience.  In  infancy,  the  beneficent 
gives  pleasure,  the  harmful  gives  pain ;  the  accustomed 
yields  all  needed  ideas  and  gives  pleasure ;  the  unaccus- 
tomed inspires  vague  terrors  and  gives  pain.  A  little 
higher  in  development,  variety  furnishes  the  mind  with 
food  and  gives  pleasure,  while  monotony  starves  it  and 
gives  pain. 

In  some  combinations  of  qualities  or  of  objects,  the 
impressions  harmonize  with  the  human  organism,  and 
give  pleasure ;  in  others,  they  do  not  so  harmonize,  and 
give  pain.  For  example :  intense  light  is  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  structure  of  the  eye,  and  pain  is  caused 
either  by  its  admission  or  by  the  effort  to  keep  it  out. 
In  like  manner,  cross-lights  in  a  room  produce  contin- 
ually varying  degrees  of  light,  so  that  the  muscles  of  the 
iris  become  weary  in  endeavoring  to  adjust  the  internal 
structure  to  the  outward  conditions.  So  in  color,  cer- 
tain combinations  respond  to  the  structure  of  the  eye 
and  are  restful,  while  others  are  at  variance  with  this 
structure  and  are  painful.  In  all  these  cases,  that  which 
gives  pleasure  we  call  beautiful,  and  that  which  gives 
pain,  ugly  ;  the  internal  emotion  passing  judgment  upon 
the  external  object. 

In  a  still  higher  state  of  development,  intelligence 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  210 

reacts  upon  the  senses  and  corrects  the  first  vague  no- 
tions. The  harmful  has  been  subjugated.  Qualities 
are  considered  apart  from  objects.  The  harmonies  be- 
tween the  external  and  internal  are  more  clearly  seen. 
The  ideas  which  Nature  represents  are  more  fully  com- 
prehended. The  imagination  is  busy  in  constructing 
new  ideals.  In  consequence,  notions  concerning  beauty 
continually  broaden,  become  more  discriminative,  and 
exercise  a  more  potent  influence  upon  the  emotions. 

Training  in  Art. — Efforts  to  represent  the  beauti- 
ful are  of  great  assistance  to  its  full  appreciation.  The 
steps  of  representation  are  first  imitation,  and  then  an 
analysis  and  a  rearrangement  of  the  elements  into  new 
combinations.  By  this  process  we  become  more  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  Nature ;  see  more  clearly  the 
typical  forms  to  which  the  real  forms  more  or  less  im- 
perfectly approximate  ;  and  are  able  to  improve  upon 
Nature  by  representing  the  typical  rather  than  the  real 
forms.  This  is  the  realization  of  the  beautiful  in  human 
production,  and  is  pure  art. 

Before  considering  the  steps  necessary  to  be  taken 
in  aesthetic  culture,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  ele- 
ments which  constitute  beauty  somewhat  in  detail. 

Form. — One  of  the  most  fundamental  elements  of 
beauty  is  form.  Observations  of  Nature  give  us  forms 
in  almost  infinite  variety  and  combination.  We  see 
daily  the  blue  dome  of  the  heavens  and  the  green  man- 
tle of  the  earth,  and  nightly  the  stars  in  their  pn 
sion,  and  each  of  these  gives  pleasure:  not  because  of 
their  known  utility,  but  because  thev  form  a  part  of  the 
established  order  of  things,  t«>  which   \\e  have  become 


220  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

accustomed.  Mystery  was  one  source  of  pleasure  af- 
forded by  the  contemplation  of  the  starry  heavens,  but 
the  pleasure  becomes  even  greater,  as  the  mystery  is 
resolved  into  majestic  law,  which 

"  Extends  through  all  extent, 
Spreads  undivided,  operates  unspent." 

Analysis  of  Form. — Descending  from  the  general 
to  the  particular,  the  features  of  a  landscape  and  the 
special  forms  of  vegetation  give  pleasure,  and  are  said 
to  be  beautiful.  At  the  same  time  a  discrimination  is 
made.  A  rugged  landscape,  unfit  for  human  occu- 
pancy, would,  at  first,  scarcely  appear  beautiful,  be- 
cause it  is  associated  with  no  pleasurable  emotions. 
The  beauty  of  such  scenery  is  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  have  passed  from  the  perceptive  into  the  re- 
flective state.  So  a  tree  gnarled  and  twisted  by  the 
wind  is  seen  to  poorly  represent  the  typical  tree  which 
would  grow  up  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances. 
To  a  higher  culture,  however,  the  very  twisted  appear- 
ance becomes  an  additional  element  of  beauty,  as  it  gives 
evidence  of  the  operation  of  majestic  forces,  the  contem- 
plation of  which  is  a  stimulus  and  a  pleasure  to  the  mind. 

Geometric  Divisions. — Still  further  analysis  sepa- 
rates form  into  its  geometric  elements,  the  main  divis- 
ions of  which  are  straight  and  curved  lines.  In  Nature, 
straight  lines  are  seldom  presented,  while  curved  lines 
are  found  in  almost  infinite  variety,  and  it  is  equally 
true  that  curved  lines  usually  give  greater  pleasure  than 
straight  ones,  and  are  considered  essential  elements  of 
beauty.  A  reason  for  the  greater  pleasure  afforded  by 
the  curved  line  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more 


AESTHETIC   CULTURE.  221 

restful  to  the  eye.  In  forms  made  up  of  straight  lines 
there  is  a  monotony  of  vision  along  the  single  line  to 
the  end,  where  there  is  an  abrupt  transition,  causing  a 
sudden  change  in  the  muscular  movements  of  the  eye  ; 
while  in  curved  lines  and  surfaces  there  is  a  continual 
change  which  avoids  monotony,  and  makes  a  complete 
transition,  as  far  as  direction  is  concerned,  by  impercep- 
tible degrees;  the  gradual  change  producing  a  more 
pleasurable  feeling  than  the  abrupt  one. 

Forms  used  in  Art. — In  the  representation  of  beau- 
tiful forms,  the  first  necessary  step  is  the  exact  repro- 
duction of  natural  forms  as  they  appeal1.  Next  above 
this  is  the  representation  of  natural  forms  so  modified 
as  to  adapt  them  to  industrial  pursuits,  when  they  are 
said  to  be  conventionalized.  The  next  step  is  the  reali- 
zation in  art  of  the  ideals  which  Nature  suggests,  or 
the  separation  of  natural  forms  into  their  geometric  ele- 
ments, and  the  recombining  of  these  new  elements  into 
essentially  new  designs,  known  as  geometric  designs  or 
arabesques.  In  all  these  cases  the  forms  of  art  give 
pleasure,  as  they  faithfully  represent  Nature ;  as  tiny 
idealize  Nature  by  more  fully  realizing  the  idea  which 
Nature  suggests ;  or  as  they  make  complex  designs  which 
are  hints  of  a  perfection  not  fully  experienced. 

Nature  the  Basis  of  Art. — In  most  of  the  works  of 
man  the  ideas  of  form  seem  to  be  directly  derived  from 
Nature.  In  one  style  of  building,  ascending  through  ;i 
series  of  changes,  from  the  rude  wigwam  of  the  North 
American  Indians  to  the  stately  groined  arches  of  the 
Gothic  cathedrals,  the  general  idea  of  form  Is  evidently 
suggested  by  the  embowering  branches  of  forest -t  ivs. 
In  another  style  of  building,  ascending  from  the  under- 


222         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACUING. 

ground  abodes  of  the  Borean  races,  through  the  rock- 
hewn  cities  of  Arabia  and  India,  and  through  the  mas- 
sive temples  of  Egypt,  to  the  light  and  graceful  struc- 
tures of  the  classic  Greeks,  the  leading  idea  of  form 
seems  derived  from  that  of  natural  caverns  ;  and  all  the 
changes  which  art  has  made  in  this  long  series  are  but 
modifications  of  this  idea. 

Almost  any  department  of  human  art  or  industry 
furnishes  additional  examples  of  artificial  forms  grow- 
ing directly  out  of  natural  ones.  Norman  castles,  with 
their  thick  buttresses  and  stout  turrets,  were  very  faith- 
ful representations  of  mountains,  crags,  and  rocks  ;  and, 
as  they  are  seen  to  crown  the  lofty  summits  along  the 
Rhine,  they  constitute  so  harmonious  a  part  of  the  land- 
scape that  they  seem  a  part  of  the  rocks  upon  which 
they  stand,  rather  than  the  work  of  man.  The  Sara- 
cenic minarets  and  the  Oriental  pagodas,  with  their 
slender  shafts  and  overhanging  roofs,  were  developed 
in  regions  where  the  palm-tree  is  the  typical  form  of 
vegetable  life,  and  very  faithfully  the  natural  form  is 
represented  in  the  art  structures.  The  lotus,  a  common 
product  along  the  Nile,  appears  conventionalized  upon 
all  the  monuments  and  ornamentations  of  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  and  the  acanthus,  a  plant  of  Southern  Europe, 
furnishes  the  idea  for  the  exquisite  capital  of  the  Corin- 
thian columns  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans. 

Proportion. — The  next  element  which  enters  into 
our  ideas  of  beauty  is  that  of  proportion.  In  the  full 
knowledge  of  an  object,  which  results  from  examina- 
tion, there  are  included  ideas  of  use  and  adaptation  to 
nse.     One  of  the  elements  of  adaptation  is  size — and, 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  003 

from  the  correspondence  of  size  to  use,  of  the  size  of 
parts  to  their  respective  uses  and  to  each  other,  and 
from  the  relative  size  of  objects  when  compared  with 
other  objects,  we  get  ideas  of  proportion.  In  natural 
forms  these  ideas  are  derived  from  the  most  perfect 
specimens  in  each  department.  For  example,  in  the 
typical  form  of  each  species  of  trees  there  are  certain 
fixed  relations  in  size  between  trunk  and  branches 
which  we  call  good  proportion.  When  this  relation  is 
disturbed,  we  feel  that  the  tree  is  imperfect  and  distorted, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  parts  are  out  of  proportion. 

Projwrtion  in  Architecture. — In  architecture  there 
are  certain  relations  in  the  length,  breadth,  and  height 
of  a  building  which  we  call  good  proportion  ;  and,  while 
there  is  room  for  variation  within  proper  limits,  to 
transcend  these  limits  is  to  occasion  a  sense  of  incon- 
gruity in  those  who  see  it.  A  theory  has  been  advanced 
that  true  proportion  in  building,  in  its  effects,  is  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  natural  scale  in  music  ;  that  corre- 
spondences in  waves  of  light,  as  well  as  in  waves  of 
sound,  produce  harmony.  In  the  construction  of  rooms 
there  is  the  same  necessity  for  the  proper  adjustments 
of  the  different  dimensions,  so  that  the  greatest  satisfac- 
tion may  be  produced.  A  square  room  gives  a  sense 
of  incompleteness ;  when  the  room  is  too  low,  the  ceil- 
ing seems  to  restrain  us  from  full  freedom  of  action, 
and  when  the  room  is  too  high  the  same  feeling  of  re- 
straint seems  to  come  from  the  walls. 

Element  of  Safety. — Ideas  of  proportion  are  often 
closely  associated  with  safety.  From  experience,  we 
get  certain  notions  of  the  strength  of  materials,  and  of 
the  effect  of  forces ;  and  where  we  see  an  apparently  in- 


224         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

adequate  support  of  a  visible  weight,  or  of  a  known 
strain,  we  have  a  sense  of  insecurity  which  determines 
our  ideas  of  proportion  in  this  particular  case.  A  good 
example  of  this  feeling  is  illustrated  in  the  construction 
of  bridges.  The  old  massive  stone  structures  are  known 
to  be  perfectly  safe,  and  are  everywhere  considered  in 
good  proportion  and  beautiful.  Iron  bridges,  on  the 
contrary,  though  we  may  know  that  they  are  just  as 
safe,  appear  out  of  proportion  and  ugly.  For  this  rea- 
son Ruskin  says  that  true  architecture  demands  that 
there  shall  be  visible  supports  to  all  parts  of  the  build- 
ing ;  that  while  real  supports,  as  iron  rods,  may  be  con- 
cealed, there  must  be  entirely  adequate  apparent  sup- 
ports in  the  form  of  columns  and  buttresses. 

General  Ideas  of  Proportion. — This  idea  of  propor- 
tion seems  also  to  pervade  the  whole  world  of  thought, 
and  everywhere  the  mind  is  satisfied  only  by  a  proper 
adjustment  of  means  to  ends,  and  of  cause  to  effect. 
When  there  is  a  great  disparity  in  these  regards  the 
effect  is  grotesque,  and  is  a  legitimate  source  of  mirth. 
Hood's  comic  illustrations  were  often  of  this  character, 
deriving  their  fun  from  patent  incongruities.  One  of 
these  represents  a  small  pony  drawing  a  wagon  crowded 
with  people  up  a  steep  hill,  and  is  designated  "  Drawing 
Lots ; "  and  another  represents  an  immense  dray-horse 
apparently  straining  himself  to  the  utmost  in  drawing  a 
small  baby-cart,  under  the  title  of  "  Anti-Climax."  The 
caricatures  of  the  comic  papers,  preserving  the  likeness 
of  a  person  but  exaggerating  some  peculiarity  of  feature, 
and  the  familiar  Latin  quotation,  " parturiunt  monies  et 
nascitur  ridieulus  mus"  afford  additional  illustrations 
of  the  same  principle. 


.ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  225 

Ideas  of  Proportion  applied. — So  universal  is  this 
idea  of  proportion,  and  so  necessary  to  the  proper  ad- 
justments of  thought  and  action,  that  it  should  be  con- 
sidered in  every  department  of  school-work.  Upon  it 
are  founded  successful  courses  of  study  and  daily  pro- 
grammes. It  can  be  specifically  cultivated  in  methods 
of  study,  and  in  the  manner  in  which  work  is  performed. 
Physically,  ideas  of  proportion  are  developed  by  the 
proper  spacing  of  letters  and  words,  by  adapting  the 
size  of  letters  and  figures  to  the  place  where  they  are 
written,  as  upon  the  slate  or  blackboard,  and  by  the 
methodical  arrangement  of  all  written  work.  In  abstract 
matters,  the  same  ideas  may  be  developed  by  the  proper 
division  of  time  into  periods  of  work  and  rest,  and  by 
giving  to  each  study  its  proper  amount  of  attention. 

Unity. — Another  important  element  of  beauty  is 
unity.  The  most  fundamental  idea  connected  with 
every  object  is  its  use,  not  merely  as  contributing  to 
the  material  welfare  of  man,  but  as  occupying  its  appro- 
priate place  in  relation  to  other  objects.  When  an  ob- 
ject is  specially  adapted  to  its  uses,  and  all  its  parts, 
while  adapted  to  their  special  uses,  directly  contribute 
to  the  general  use  of  the  whole,  or  when  several  ob- 
jects are  so  related  that  they  all  contribute  to  one  gen- 
eral use  or  design,  in  this  adaptation  to  use  we  have  the 
idea  of  unity. 

Example  in  Nature. — A  tree  is  beautiful  from  its 
graceful  form,  the  proportion  of  its  parts,  and  the  un- 
dulating movement  of  its  branches  ;  but  we  are  led  to 
a  closer  observation  and  a  higher  appreciation  of  this 
beauty,  when  we  see  that  the  stalk  is  made  6trong  that 


226         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

it  may  resist  the  wind ;  that  the  branches  divide  and 
sub-divide  so  as  to  give  support  to  almost  innumerable 
leaves  ;  that  the  leaves  are  broad,  thin  plates,  hung  upon 
slender  stems,  so  that  there  may  be  the  freest  possible 
contact  with  the  air ;  and  that  the  leaves  furnish  the 
tree  with  the  greatest  amount  of  its  sustenance  by  ab- 
sorbing from  the  atmosphere  the  impurities  detrimental 
to  animal  life.  In  this  arrangement  of  the  several  parts 
we  see  adaptation  to  use,  or  unity. 

Unity  in  Art. — In  examining  almost  any  of  the 
works  of  man,  our  satisfaction,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
depends  upon  the  idea  that  they  are  designed  for  use, 
and  that  in  their  construction  this  design  is  carried  out. 
This  is  especially  true  of  a  machine.  If  it  has  no  use, 
it  is  cast  aside  as  a  mere  toy  ;  if  it  is  not  well  adapted 
to  its  use,  then  improvements  are  sought.  Full  satisfac- 
tion only  comes  when  the  proper  work  is  performed  in 
the  proper  manner. 

In  the  structure  of  a  building  we  look  for  the  same 
unity  of  design.  Whatever  elements  of  beauty  it  may 
possess,  if  it  does  not  serve  its  uses  it  is  an  offence. 
Then  the  several  parts  essential  to  the  building  must 
be  arranged  with  express  reference  to  this  use,  and  all 
others  omitted.  The  test  of  architectural  ability  is  to 
make  the  best  possible  arrangement  of  necessary  parts 
all  strictly  subordinated  to  the  use.  "Within  the  limits 
of  unity  thus  preserved  there  is  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  great  variety  in  taste. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  room,  its  furniture  and 
utensils,  the  greatest  satisfaction  is  taken  when  the  prin- 
ciple of  unity  is  fully  preserved.  Use  determines  the 
general  character  of  the  whole,  and  within  its  limits  all 


^ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  227 

ornamentation  should  come.  In  sitting-rooms  and  par- 
lors, where  considerable  time  is  spent,  pictures  and 
beautiful  objects  of  art  are  in  place,  as  conforming  ob- 
jects of  sight  to  the  physiological  conditions  of  the  eye 
and  to  the  needs  of  the  mind.  A  fit  variety  in  this  di- 
rection is  entirely  consonant  with  ideas  of  unity. 

Disregard  of  Unity. — In  architecture  the  principle 
of  unity  is  often  entirely  disregarded.  Churches  and 
lecture-rooms,  for  example,  are  built  in  accordance  with 
some  dogmatic  canon  in  regard  to  proportion,  and  no 
attention  is  paid  to  acoustic  effects,  and  they  become  an 
offence,  alike  to  the  speaker  and  the  audience.  Public 
edifices  and  dwellings  are  frequently  erected  in  which 
use  is  entirely  subordinated  to  external  appearance. 

The  principle  of  unity  is  also  violated  in  attaching 
features  to  a  building  expressly  for  ornament,  or  orna- 
ment for  ornament's  sake.  In  the  structure  of  roofs, 
windows,  doors,  and  other  necessary  parts  of  a  building, 
beautiful  forms  and  arrangements  may  be  chosen  ;  but 
the  fundamental  idea  of  unity  forbids  the  addition  of 
special  features  not  necessary  to  the  structure,  simply 
for  ornamentation. 

Aggregation  not  Unity. — The  absence  of  thifl  idea 
of  unity  is  felt  in  visiting  a  museum  or  public  gallery 
of  art.  In  the  whole  collection  there  can  be  no  general 
idea  except  that  of  aggregation.  An  ordinary  visit  to 
such  places  leaves  but  confused  and  unsatisfactory 
images  in  the  mind,  and  neither  pleasure  nor  profit  i- 
gained.  It  is  only  when  the  attention  is  concentrated 
upon  a  single  object  that  good  can  arise,  and  here  the 
idea  of  unity  is  preserved  by  excluding  all  objects  ex- 
cept the  one  studied. 


228  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Symmetry. —  Observation  in  regard  to  almost  any 
specimen  of  organic  life  shows  a  certain  orderly  arrange- 
ment of  parts  by  which  a  balance  is  maintained  on  the 
two  sides,  and  this  arrangement  is  the  same  in  all  indi- 
viduals belonging  to  the  same  species,  and  is  analogous 
in  the  several  species  that  constitute  the  more  general 
groups.  For  example,  the  leaves  of  plants  are  arranged 
on  the  stalk  sometimes  opposite,  sometimes  alternate, 
and  sometimes  in  other  orders ;  but  there  is  always  a 
substantial  equality  maintained  between  the  two  sides. 
In  like  manner  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs  of  an 
animal  balance  each  other,  and  the  limbs  and  organs  of 
sense  are  double,  and  placed  on  opposite  sides.  This 
arrangement  of  parts  so  that  they  balance  each  other  is 
symmetry,  and  a  perception  of  it  gives  a  satisfaction  to 
the  mind  and  constitutes  one  of  the  elements  of  beauty. 

Symmetry  in  Nature. — Our  pleasure  at  the  sight  of 
a  fine  tree,  to  a  considerable  extent,  depends  upon  the 
idea  of  symmetry  which  it  suggests.  While  there  may 
not  be  an  exact  reproduction  of  parts  on  each  side,  there 
is  a  general  balance  maintained.  To  see  how  much 
symmetry  enters  into  our  ideas  of  the  beauty  of  a  tree, 
we  have  only  to  observe  one  that  has  been  riven  by 
lightning,  and  we  find  that  in  the  loss  of  one  side  all 
beauty  is  gone. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  so  thoroughly  is  this  idea 
of  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  parts  impressed  upon 
us  that  any  deviation  from  it  appears  grotesque,  and  gives 
us  an  uneasy  or  painful  feeling.  This  is  illustrated  by 
the  sight  of  a  flounder,  where  the  relative  position  of 
the  mouth  and  eyes,  so  different  from  that  of  most 
fish,  suggests  that  some  mistake  has  been  made,  which 


ESTHETIC   CULTURE.  229 

the  imagination  vainly  attempts  to  rectify.  A  similar 
feeling  of  pain  is  experienced  from  the  same  cause 
when  we  see  a  person  who  has  lost  a  limb  or  an  eye. 

Symmetry  in  Art. — The  idea  of  symmetry  is  car- 
ried out  in  almost  every  department  of  construction.  It 
is  an  especial  element  in  architecture,  where  it  demands 
a  central  idea,  and  a  balance  in  the  grouping  of  subor- 
dinate parts.  "When  either  of  these  conditions  is  ab- 
sent, there  is  a  disquieting  feeling,  a  sense  of  incomplete- 
ness, and  one  element  of  beauty  is  wanting. 

An  analogous  effect  is  produced  by  objects  out  of 
their  true  position.  When  a  door,  or  window,  or  any 
other  part  of  a  building  that  should  be  vertical,  is  out 
of  plumb,  a  painful  sensation  is  produced  ;  and  this  feel- 
ing is  strongest  in  those  whose  observing  powers  have 
been  best  trained.  This  probably  arises,  in  part,  from 
the  feeling  of  insecurity  which  is  associated  with  lean- 
ing structures. 

IIarmont.  —  Closely  associated  with  unity,  which 
considers  the  adaptation  of  parts  to  use,  is  harmony, 
which  takes  into  account  the  dependence  of  parts  and 
their  relations  as  to  style.  In  regard  to  dependence, 
harmony  demands  that  the  principal  parts  be  made  the 
most  prominent,  and  that  the  minor  parts  shall  not  ob- 
trude themselves  upon  notice.  In  this  sense  harmony 
is  closely  allied  to  proportion,  but  proportion  in  a  gen- 
eral sense  of  considering  all  the  parts  which  go  to  make 
up  the  structure  or  unity.. 

Examples  of  this  want  of  harmony  may  be  seen  in 
doors  much  too  large  or  too  small  for  the  walls  in  which 
they  are  placed  ;  roofs  so  scanty  as  scarcely  to  bo  vi.-i- 


230         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

ble ;  in  the  kind  of  dwelling  which  is  very  justly  de- 
scribed as  a  portico  with  a  house  behind  it ;  in  a  small 
building  surmounted  by  a  large  dome,  looking  like  a 
child  with  his  father's  hat  on ;  and  in  that  general  ar- 
rangement of  farm  buildings  where  the  stable  is  made 
more  conspicuous  than  the  dwelling. 

Harmony  in  Style. — In  its  second  sense,  harmony 
demands  that,  in  the  details  of  the  arrangements  of 
parts  and  in  the  finish,  certain  likenesses  in  style  shall 
be  preserved,  and  marked  contrasts  shall  be  avoided. 
When  the  laws  of  harmony  are  violated,  a  feeling  is 
produced  that  the  mistake  has  been  made  of  putting 
together  parts  that  belong  to  different  objects,  and  that, 
though  they  may  serve  their  uses,  a  different  arrange- 
ment would  serve  them  better. 

Harmony  in  Nature. — We  see  this  idea  of  harmony 
carried  out  in  organic  structure.  Each  species  of  trees 
has  its  own  law  of  growth,  and  its  typical  form,  and 
each  individual  in  the  species  conforms  to  the  law,  and 
more  or  less  closely  approximates  to  the  form.  Conif- 
erous trees  are  usually  spire-shaped,  and  have  branches 
and  leaves  peculiar  to  themselves ;  maples,  in  form  and 
leaf,  are  of  a  quite  different  type,  and  there  is  no  mix- 
ing of  the  characteristics  of  the  two  species. 

In  the  animal  world  we  find  the  same  laws  of  har- 
mony prevail  in  regard  to  general  form,  the  arrangement 
of  parts,  and  special  characteristics.  So  much  reliance 
can  be  placed  upon  this  uniformity  of  structure  in  spe- 
cies that  comparative  anatomists  are  able  to  reconstruct 
an  animal  from  a  single  bone,  and  even  to  reconstruct 
an  extinct  species  from  the  impress  of  a  single  part  left 
in  the  rocks.     So  strong  is  this  idea  of  harmony  in  the 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  231 

Btructure  of  animal  forms  impressed  upon  the  mind 
that  the  discovery  of  the  remains  of  a  species  in  Aus- 
tralia, with  60me  of  the  characteristics  of  a  bird  and 
some  of  a  mammal,  was  for  a  long  time  considered  a 
fable ;  and,  when  the  evidence  was  too  strong  to  be 
doubted,  the  animal  was  regarded  with  feelings  akin  to 
those  experienced  toward  monstrosities. 

Harmony  in  Art. — In  architecture,  the  element  of 
harmony  is  of  special  importance.  Many  styles  have 
grown  out  of  different  conditions  and  circiunsta] 
each  of  the  features  expressing  a  definite  idea,  and  all 
necessary  to  the  completed  whole.  Between  these  differ- 
ent styles  there  may  be  but  few  features  in  common ; 
and  the  effect  of  mixing  parts  is  as  incongruous  as  would 
be  the  growth  of  pine  and  maple  branches  and  leaves  on 
the  same  tree. 

For  example,  Greek  architecture  was  developed  in 
the  structure  of  large  temples,  and  in  a  climate  warm 
enough  for  out-door  living  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  The  temple  consisted  of  four  walls  in  the 
form  of  a  rectangle,  and  of  an  exterior  and  interior 
portico  supported  by  columns,  and  connected  by  open 
door-ways  through  the  walls.  The  interior  was  an  open 
court.  All  the  decorative  skill  of  the  Greeks  wa-  ex- 
pended upon  the  portico,  which  was  a  place  of  public 
assemblage,  and  the  principal  part  of  the  building. 
When  the  Greek  temple  is  built  for  modern  purposes 
in  a  climate  where  protection  from  the  weather  is  a 
prime  necessity,  the  portico  is  found  to  be  practically  of 
little  use  in  itself,  and  of  decided  disadvantage  to  the 
interior  by  shutting  out  the  light.  The  chief  part  of 
such  a  building  is  out  of  harmony  with  its  uses.     When 


232         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

the  forms  which  were  developed  in  connection  with  the 
Greek  temple  are  used  to  ornament  buildings  which 
have  grown  out  of  other  circumstances  and  necessities, 
the  effect  is  seen  to  be  unpleasant  from  the  violation  of 
the  laws  of  harmony. 

Want  of  Harmony. — The  same  want  of  harmony 
is  shown  in  mixing  special  and  characteristic  features  of 
other  styles  of  building.  The  Norman  battlements  and 
turrets  were  raised  for  defense  in  an  age  of  perpetual 
warfare,  and  the  Gothic  groined  arches  grew  out  of  re- 
ligious fervor.  To  unite  the  forms  of  these  two  styles, 
and  adapt  them  to  the  necessities  of  a  modern  dwelling, 
is  to  commit  a  double  incongruity. 

The  violation  of  the  laws  of  harmony  is  well  illus- 
trated by  Lowell  in  his  description  of  the  house  of  Mr. 
Knott : 

"  Whatever  anybody  had 
Out  of  the  common,  good  or  bad, 

Knott  had  it  all  worked  -well  in  ; 
A  donjon  keep,  where  clothes  might  dry; 
A  porter's  lodge,  that  was  a  sty  : 
A  campanile  slim  and  high, 

Too  small  to  hang  a  bell  in. 
It  was  a  house  to  make  one  stare, 

All  corners  and  all  gables ; 
And  all  the  oddities  to  spare 
Were  set  upon  the  stables." 

Vakiett. — The  careful  and  minute  study  of  Nature 
shows  that,  while  there  is  a  conformity  to  the  laws  of 
proportion,  unity,  and  symmetry,  there  are  no  two 
things  ever  just  alike.  The  leaves  of  a  tree,  although 
conforming  to  a  common  type,  are  all  different ;  no  two 
branches  are  alike  in  form,  and  no  two  trees  are  ever  so 


.ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  233 

near  alike  that  they  may  not  be  readily  distinguished 
from  each  other.  In  the  animal  world  the  same  truth 
holds ;  no  two  animals  are  ever  just  alike,  and,  when 
the  likeness  is  so  perfect  as  in  the  structure  of  the 
two  sides  of  the  same  animal,  there  are  differences  i  1 1 
detail  which  can  be  easily  detected  by  nice  observation. 
By  these  unlikenesses  monotony  is  avoided,  a  perpet- 
ual pleasure  is  afforded  by  new  impressions,  and  vari- 
ety is  seen  to  constitute  one  of  the  essential  elements 
of  beauty. 

Variety  in  Nature. — Upon  this  point  of  variety  in 
Nature,  Raskin  says  :  kk  Gather  a  branch  from  any  of  the 
trees  and  flowers  to  which  the  earth  owes  its  principal 
beauty.  I  will  take,  for  instance,  a  spray  of  the  com- 
mon ash.  Now  Nature  abhors  equality  and  similitude, 
just  as  much  as  foolish  men  love  them.  You  will  find 
that  the  ends  of  the  shoots  are  composed  of  four  green 
stalks  bearing  leaves,  springing  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
if  seen  from  above,  and  at  first  you  will  suppose  the 
four  arms  of  the  cross  are  equal.  Hut  look  closer,  and 
you  will  find  that  two  opposite  arms  or  stalks  have  only 
five  leaves  each,  and  the  other  two  have  seven  ;  or  else, 
two  have  seven  and  the  other  two  nine,  but  always  one 
pair  of  stalks  has  two  more  leaves  than  the  other  two. 
Sometimes  the  tree  gets  a  little  puzzled,  and  forgets 
which  is  to  be  the  longest  stalk,  and  begins  with  a  stem 
for  seven  leaves  where  it  should  have  nine,  and  then 
recollects  itself  at  the  last  minute  and  puts  Oil  another 
Leaf  in  a  great  hurry,  and  bo  produces  a  stalk  with  eight 
Leaves;  and  all  this  care  it  takes  merely  to  keep  itself 
out  of  equalities,  and  all  its  grace  and  power  of  pleasing 
are  owing  to  its  doing  so,  together  with   the  lovely 


234  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

curves  in  which  its  stalks,  thus  arranged,  spring  from 
the  main  bough." 

Again  he  says  :  "  You  do  not  feel  interested  in  hear- 
ing the  same  thing  over  and  over  again.  Why  do  you 
suppose  you  can  feel  interested  in  seeing  the  same  thing 
over  and  over  again,  were  that  thing  even  the  best  and 
most  beautiful  in  the  world  ?  '  Nay,'  but  you  will  an- 
swer me,  '  we  see  sunrises  and  sunsets,  and  violets  and 
roses,  over  and  over  again,  and  we  do  not  tire  of  them.' 
What !  did  you  ever  see  one  sunrise  like  another  ?  Does 
not  God  vary  his  clouds  for  you  every  morning  and 
every  night  ?  though,  indeed,  there  is  enough  in  the  dis- 
appearing and  appearing  of  the  great  orb  above  the  roll- 
ing of  the  world  to  interest  all  of  us,  one  would  think, 
for  as  many  times  as  we  shall  see  it,  and  yet  the  aspect 
of  it  is  changed  for  us  daily.  You  see  violets  and 
roses  often,  and  are  not  tired  of  them.  True !  but  you 
did  not  often  see  two  roses  alike,  or,  if  you  did,  you 
took  care  not  to  put  them  in  the  same  nosegay,  for  fear 
the  nosegay  should  be  uninteresting." 

Variety  in  Art. — The  variety  which  is  seen  to  consti- 
tute so  important  an  element  of  beauty  in  Nature  oc- 
cupies an  equally  important  place  in  art.  This  is  espec- 
ially noticeable  in  the  architecture  of  our  homes.  A 
room  is  made  more  pleasant  by  windows  varying  in  size 
and  groupings  on  the  different  sides,  and  by  panelings 
so  that  the  walls  do  not  appear  as  exact  counterparts  of 
each  other.  A  building  becomes  a  much  more  beautiful 
object,  where  exact  symmetry  is  relieved  by  a  judicious 
variety  in  the  arrangement  of  parts.  The  plain  monot- 
onous front  of  a  great  factory,  with  its  windows  all 
exact  duplicates  of  one  form,  placed  at  exactly  regular 


-ESTHETIC   CULTURE 


i'.;.. 


intervals,  is  a  synonym  for  ugliness,  and  any  building  is 
ugly  as  it  approaches  the  factory  type. 

Monotony  in  Cities. — The  same  principle  holds  true 
in  the  aggregation  of  houses  in  a  city.  However  fine 
the  model  of  a  building  may  be  in  its  general  propor- 
tions, its  endless  duplication  through  long  streets  be- 
comes oppressive,  and  the  mind  derives  a  positive  pleas- 
ure from  the  sight  of  even  an  old  tumble-down  rookery 
which  relieves  it  from  the  wearisome  monotony.  When 
art  is  generally  taught,  and  the  principles  of  architect- 
ure are  well  understood,  the  house  a  man  builds  will  be 
the  expression  of  his  individual  taste,  and  the  aggrega- 
tion of  such  houses  will  have  all  the  variety  of  indi- 
vidual character.  Then  the  streets  of  a  city  will  be  a 
source  of  perpetual  delight  in  their  continual  surprises, 
each  change  being  but  a  variation  of  beautiful  forms, 
and  the  whole  will  become  an  important  educational 
influence. 

Contrasted  Examples. — In  one  of  the  principal 
cities  in  this  country,  two  costly  and  solid  public  build- 
ings stand  near  each  other.  The  one  is  exactly  sy in- 
metrical,  with  a  central  doorway  and  the  same  number 
of  windows  on  each  side.  The  door  and  the  windows 
are  ornamented  by  elaborate  carved  stone-work,  and 
along  the  frieze  there  is  also  a  great  amount  of  costly 
carvings.  The  windows  arc,  however,  exactly  alike,  ami 
the  carved  ornaments  are  such  exact  duplications  of  a 
single  form  that  they  appear  as  cast  in  the  same  mould. 
A  single  glance  at  this  structure  comprehends  it  all,  and 
the  observer  turns  away  from  all  this  exhibition  of  labor 
and  expense,  if  not  in  disgust,  at  Least  in  atter indifference. 

In  the  other  building,  while  there  is  a  general  bal- 


236         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

ance  of  parts  so  as  to  satisfy  the  mind  in  regard  to 
symmetry,  the  windows  and  other  parts  differ  in  regard 
to  form,  size,  and  ornamental  carvings.  Each  window 
has  its  own  separate  design,  and  no  two  carvings  are 
alike.  The  differences  are  not  so  great  as  to  violate  the 
laws  of  harmony,  and  the  whole  effect  is  that  of  unity 
in  variety.  The  eye  casually  f  ailing  upon  this  structure 
is  arrested  by  the  beauty  of  its  general  form  and  color, 
and  is  thereby  led  to  make  more  minute  observations. 
The  arrangement  of  the  parts,  each  contributing  to  the 
beauty  of  the  whole,  next  receives  notice ;  and,  lastly,  the 
attention  is  attracted  to  the  ornamental  finish,  where 
each  successive  form  becomes  a  new  revelation  and  ex- 
cites a  new  interest.  The  pleasurable  emotions  aroused 
by  the  first  glance  are  heightened  by  observation  and 
study,  and  the  sense  of  beauty  is  fully  gratified. 

Color. — Another  fundamental  element  of  beauty  is 
color.  The  light  by  means  of  which  the  eye  is  enabled 
to  see  is  principally  derived  from  the  sun ;  and  we  as- 
sume that  there  is  such  a  substantial  accord  between  the 
eye  and  the  sun's  rays  that  the  ordinary  light  of  day 
gives  the  greatest  satisfaction,  while  light  of  an  essen- 
tially different  character  would  cause  uneasiness.  The 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  however,  are  usually  subdued, 
and  so  distributed  over  objects  that  they  come  to  the 
eye  in  differing  degrees  of  intensity ;  and  this  variety  is 
not  only  restful  to  the  eye,  but  it  is  the  only  means  by 
which  we  distinguish  form  through  vision.  "Were  it 
possible  for  all  the  light  which  enters  the  eye  to  be  of 
uniform  intensity,  then  form  in  objects  would  vanish, 
and  all  beauty  would  disajypear. 


^STIIETIC  CULTURE.  237 

Standard  of  Beauty  in  Color. — The  analysis  of  the 
sun's  ray  gives  the  prismatic  colors ;  and  we  think  it  safe 
to  assume  that  the  proportion  of  color  most  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  and  therefore  the  most  beautiful,  is  that  of  the 
solar  spectrum,  and  that,  when  separated,  the  colors  that 
most  largely  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  sun's  ray 
will  be  the  ones  upon  which  the  eye  will  dwell  longest 
without  requiring  a  change. 

For  example,  of  the  primary  colors,  blue  constitutes 
nearly  or  quite  one-half  of  the  ray  of  light,  and  yellow 
something  more  than  one-fourth.  The  combination  of 
blue  and  yellow  constitutes  green.  Experience  shows 
that  the  eye  will  rest  longer  upon  blue  without  uneasiness 
than  upon  either  of  the  other  primary  colors,  and  upon 
green  longer  than  upon  any  of  the  other  secondary 
colors.  In  the  blue  of  the  sky  and  the  green  of  the 
earth,  we  have  the  largest  masses  of  color  which  Xature 
affords,  and  upon  these  the  eye  rests  with  a  greater  sat- 
isfaction than  upon  anything  else,  a  fact  continuing  the 
idea  of  beauty  of  proportion  existing  in  the  sun's  ray, 
and  showing  the  conformity  of  internal  conditions  to 
objective  realities. 

Complementary  Colors. — As  the  sun's  ray  famishes 
just  the  proportion  of  color  that  the  eye  demands,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  eye,  sooner  or  later,  will  tire  of  observing 
any  single  color ;  and,  when  it  is  so  tired,  rest  comes  from 
the  observation  of  complementary  colors.  The  sun's  ray 
being  made  up  of  the  three  primary  colors,  bine,  yellow, 
and  red,  each  one  is  complementary  to  the  other  two, 
either  separately  or  in  combination.  The  eye  ifl  pleased 
with  green  for  a  longer  time  than  with  any  other  <>f  the 
bright  colors;  but,  tiring  at  last,  it  demands  the  comple- 


238  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mentary  color,  red.  In  the^  same  manner,  the  eye,  tiring 
of  violet,  demands  yellow,  and,  tiring  of  orange,  de- 
mands blue.  When  the  eye  has  become  tired  of  a 
single  color,  as  blue,  if  it  be  directed  to  another  color 
partially  composed  of  blue,  as  green,  the  blue  element 
is  not  seen,  and  the  green  appears  yellow. 

When  complementary  colors  are  brought  into  prox- 
imity, the  effect  is  to  intensify  both,  and  produce  one 
kind  of  pleasing  combination,  as  is  seen  in  the  violet 
and  yellow  of  pansies,  and  in  the  appearance  of  bright 
red  flowers,  in  contrast  with  the  green  of  the  grass. 
When  two  colors  non-complementary,  both  of  which 
contain  a  common  element,  as  blue  and  green,  are  brought 
together,  the  effect  is  to  modify  or  subdue  the  intensity 
of  both,  and  to  produce  another  kind  of  pleasing  com- 
bination. We  see  this  kind  of  effect  in  the  natural 
mingling  of  flowers  and  colored  lichens  in  rocky  places, 
and  in  the  mellowness  of  an  extended  landscape,  where 
the  intensity  of  the  green  is  subdued  by  the  faint  and 
transparent  blue  of  the  atmosphere. 

Variety  in  Color. — In  the  hues  produced  by  uniting 
two  primary  colors  in  different  proportions,  in  the  tints 
and  shades  of  the  different  hues,  and  in  the  more  com- 
plex combinations  of  the  several  primary  colors,  we 
have  variety  in  color  limited  only  by  the  power  of  the 
eye  to  discriminate  in  regard  to  differences.  With 
primitive  people  the  brighter  colors  alone  appear  to  be 
attractive  ;  but,  as  aesthetic  culture  advances,  greater 
beauty  is  seen  in  the  delicate  tints  and  shades  of  sub- 
dued and  neutral  colors. 

Attention  to  Color. — As  color  so  much  enters  into 
ideas  of  beauty,  and  is  so  largely  employed  in  dress,  in  the 


***%* 


Lo*Angf. 

ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  L'  ;;» 


ULT 

ie  ii 


furnishing  of  houses,  and  in  the/ industrial  arts,  it  should 
receive  particular  attention  in  school,  both  upon  its 
theoretical  and  practical  side.  The  late  discoveries  in 
regard  to  the  nature  of  light  have  given  to  this  subject 
a  scientific  character,  and  made  it  possible  for  teachers 
to  approach  it  by  scientific  methods,  and  thus  combine 
aesthetic  and  scientific  culture. 

Sound. — Besides  the  beauty  which  is  found  in  ob- 
jects of  sight,  certain  sounds  and  combinations  of  sounds 
produce  analogous  emotions  of  pleasure,  and  are  called 
beautiful,  and  of  this  form  of  beauty  the  aesthetic  sense 
takes  cognizance.  The  sounds  to  which  the  term 
beauty  can  be  applied  are  found  only  in  human 
speech  and  in  music ;  the  latter  term  including  the 
natural  song  of  birds,  as  well  as  the  music  of  the 
voice  in  singing,  and  the  artificial  music  performed 
upon  instruments. 

Origin  of  Musical  Perception. — In  music,  as  in 
form,  two  theories  are  advanced  as  to  the  standard  of 
beauty,  the  one  making  it  an  intuitive  perception  of 
that  which  approximates  to  spiritual  perfection,  and  the 
other  deriving  it  from  the  complex  experiences  of  the 
human  race.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  sustaining  the  Lattei 
view,  sums  up  his  argument  as  follows  :  "  We  have  seen 
that  there  is  a  physiological  relation  common  to  men  and 
all  animals,  between  feeling  and  muscular  action  ;  that,  afl 
vocal  sounds  are  produced  by  muscular  action,  there  is 
a  consequent  physiological  relation  between  feeling  and 
vocal  sounds;  that  all  the  modifications  of  voice, expres- 
sive of  feeling,  are  the  direct  results  of  this  physiologi- 
cal relation  ;  that  music,  adopting  all  these  modifications. 


240         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

intensifies  them  more  and  more,  as  it  ascends  to  its 
higher  forms  and  becomes  music  in  virtue  of  thus  in- 
tensifying them  ;  that  from  the  ancient  epic  poet,  chant- 
ing his  verses,  down  to  the  modern  musical  composer, 
men  of  unusually  strong  feelings,  prone  to  express  them 
in  extreme  forms,  have  been  naturally  the  agents  of  these 
intensifications  ;  and  that  there  has  little  by  little  arisen 
a  wide  divergence  between  this  idealized  language  of 

c  ©         © 

emotion  and  its  natural  language ;  to  which  direct  evi- 
dence we  have  added  the  indirect — that  on  no  other 
tenable  hypothesis  can  either  the  expressiveness  or  the 
genesis  of  music  be  explained." 

"Whether  we  adopt  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
theories  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  music,  we 
are  all  agreed  that  the  musical  faculty  can  be  cultivated ; 
that  musical  culture  is  a  part  of  a  complete  education, 
giving  to  the  individual  additional  power  and  means  of 
enjoyment,  and  that  this  culture  is  a  legitimate  part  of 
school  work. 

^Esthetic  and  Moral  Value  of  Music. — The  im- 
portance of  musical  culture  to  full  development  and  the 
exact  place  it  should  occupy  are  so  well  stated  by  Mr. 
Spencer  that  we  again  quote  :  "  The  tendency  of  civil- 
ization is  more  and  more  to  repress  the  antagonistic  ele- 
ments of  our  characters,  and  to  develop  the  social  ones  ; 
to  curb  our  purely  selfish  desires  and  exercise  our  un- 
selfish ones  ;  to  replace  private  gratification  by  gratifica- 
tion resulting  from  or  involving  the  happiness  of  others. 
And  while,  by  this  adaptation  to  the  social  state,  the 
sympathetic  side  of  our  nature  is  being  unfolded,  there 
is  simultaneously  growing  up  a  language  of  sympathetic 
intercourse — a  language  through  which  we   communi- 


^STEETIC  CULTURE.  241 

cate  to  others  the  happiness  we  feel,  and  are  made  to 
share  in  their  happiness." 

Music  in  Schools. — The  controversies  that  have 
arisen  concerning  the  introduction  of  music  into  schools 
have  furnished  incontrovertible  arguments  in  its  favor; 
and  experience  has  more  than  justified  the  logic,  so  that  we 
are  safe  in  assuming  that  music  should  constitute  a  part 
of  every  regular  course  of  instruction  in  school.  Sing- 
ing should  be  practised  daily  in  every  department  for 
the  immediate  pleasure  it  gives,  for  the  aesthetic  culture 
which  it  affords,  and  for  its  beneficial  results  in  school 
discipline.  In  the  higher  departments  the  art  of  music 
should  be  supplemented  by  its  science,  the  attention  be- 
ing mainly  given  to  singing,  as  being  of  much  greater 
importance  than  any  form  of  instrumental  music. 

Character  of  School  Music. — As  the  function  of 
music  is  to  express  emotion,  which,  reacting  upon  char- 
acter, tends  to  stimulate  emotion,  and  progressively  give 
it  more  tit  expression,  the  character  of  the  music  intro- 
duced into  our  schools  becomes  a  matter  of  prime  con- 
cern. Music,  like  literature,  has  its  low  and  sensational 
forms  which  tend  to  degrade  both  taste  and  feeling. 
Dime  novels  have  their  counterpart  in  musical  composi- 
tion. This  low  kind  of  music  includes  the  purely  mean- 
ingless ;  the  sentimental,  which  ends  in  mere  sentiment, 
but  never  excites  to  generosity  or  action  ;  the  mocking, 
which  parodies  and  vulgarizes  that  which  is  lofty  and 
pure;  the  ignoble,  which  clothes  puerility  in  the  garb 
of  piety;  and  the  satanic,  which  appeals  directly  to  the 
lower  and  baser  passions.  All  this  kind  of  music  should 
be  shunned,  and  that  alone  chosen  which  has  a  tendency 
to  amuse  the  higher  nature,  to  repress  selfishness,  and  to 
11 


242  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

restrain  the  lower  propensities.  Music  of  this  kind, 
while  directly  aiding  in  aesthetic  development,  becomes 
an  important  element  in  moral  culture. 

Tones  in  Sjpeech. — Speech  has  the  double  function 
of  expressing  thought  and  emotion,  the  former  by  words 
and  their  combinations,  and  the  latter  principally  by 
the  quality  and  variations  of  tone.  In  moral  culture, 
the  end  is  to  subordinate  the  passions,  the  appetites,  and 
the  selfish  propensities ;  to  develop  sympathy  and  the 
desire  for  the  good  of  others ;  and  to  place  all  the  ac- 
tivities under  the  control  of  reason.  ^Esthetic  culture 
demands  that  the  expression  of  these  ruder  emotions 
shall  be  correspondingly  subordinated,  and  that  the  ex- 
pression of  the  gentler  emotions  be  cultivated  until  they 
become  fixed  habits. 

U7ij)leasant  Tones. — Loud  tones  in  common  conver- 
sation express  a  domineering  spirit,  coarse  emotion,  or  a 
selfish  determination  to  be  heard  in  any  event ;  shrill 
tones  denote  ill-temper ;  sneering  tones  indicate  a  dis- 
position to  hurt ;  and  harsh  dissonant  tones  show  a  want 
of  thought  or  a  lack  of  human  sympathy.  Should  these 
tones  be  used  simply  from  imitation,  they  would  have 
the  effect  to  arouse  the  emotions  of  which  they  are  the 
natural  expression  in  the  person  using  them  and  in 
others.  In  consequence,  the  teacher  cannot  be  too  care- 
ful in  regard  to  his  own  manner  of  speech,  nor  too  at- 
tentive to  that  of  his  pupils.  By  proper  training  in  re- 
gard to  speech,  the  aesthetic  sense  is  cultivated,  and  this, 
reacting,  produces  greater  beauty  of  speech ;  and,  in  the 
end,  the  tones  used  by  both  teacher  and  pupil  will  be 
those  which  express  kindliness  and  tender  emotion,  and 
none  other, 


.ESTHETIC  culture.  243 

Genekal  Summary. — From  the  foregoing  analysis, 
we  get  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  beauty  and  of  the 
universality  of  its  elements,  and  we  see  how  esthetic 
culture  reaches  out  toward  science  upon  the  one  side,  and 
toward  morals  upon  the  other.  We  also  see  how  errone- 
ous is  the  notion  which  so  extensively  prevails  that  the 
aesthetic  sense  is  confined  to  an  appreciation  or  produc- 
tion of  pictures  or  other  works  which  come  under  the 
general  designation  of  the  fine  arts.  It  is  true  that  the 
fine  arts  constitute  the  proper  field  for  aesthetic  activity  ; 
but  the  limits  of  these  arts  must  be  extended  so  as  to 
embrace  all  possible  arrangements  of  objects  and  ma- 
terials that  give  to  the  mind  the  satisfaction  which  is  af- 
forded by  beauty.  The  processes  to  secure  this  end  are 
two — a  mental  conception  of  what  constitutes  beauty, 
and  a  practical  ability  to  arrange  available  materials  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  approximately  satisfy  this  concep- 
tion. These  processes  may  be  separated  in  thought, but 
scarcely  in  practice,  each  step  in  the  one  being  accom- 
panied by  a  corresponding  step  in  the  other.  An  en- 
deavor to  do  results  in  a  better  knowledge  of  what 
should  be  done,  and  increased  knowledge  gives  greater 
power  to  do. 

^Esthetic  Teaching. — The  processes  of  teaching  in 
our  schools  leading  to  aesthetic  culture  need  be  both  di- 
rect and  indirect — direct  in  developing  ideas  in  regard 
to  beauty,  and  in  giving  to  them  practical  expression, 
and  indirect,  in  so  arranging  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  school  that  the  same  ideas  may  be  insensibly  im- 
bibed. 

The    /School '/'<J0 nt.  —  In    the    construction    of    the 


24:4         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

schoolroom,  due  regard  should  be  paid  to  proportion, 
unity,  and  harmony,  so  that  the  room  itself  may  be  a 
satisfaction  rather  than  an  offense  to  the  aesthetic  sense. 
The  shape  of  the  room,  the  finish  of  the  walls,  and  the 
character  of  the  furniture  are  all  matters  of  importance. 
A  room  one-fourth  longer  than  wide,  with  windows 
grouped  to  admit  broad  lights,  finished  with  the  natural 
grain  of  wood  instead  of  paint,  and  with  walls  delicately 
tinted,  costs  but  little  more  in  the  outset  than  the  cari- 
catures of  buildings  which  are  so  often  erected  for  school- 
houses.  It  will  be  seen  also  that  the  arrangement  for 
the  admission  of  light  and  the  apparatus  for  heating 
and  ventilation  have  their  aesthetic  as  well  as  sanitary 
bearing. 

The  business  of  building  belongs  to  the  school  di- 
rectors, and  the  teacher's  office  in  this  connection  is  only 
advisory.  In  the  care  of  the  room,  however,  where  the 
teacher  has  control,  equal  regard  should  be  paid  to 
aesthetic  effects.  The  room  must  always  be  kept  scru- 
pulously clean.  There  is  no  ugliness  or  deformity  so 
fatal  to  aesthetic  culture  as  filth.  The  furniture  should 
be  preserved  unmarred,  and  every  piece  of  apparatus 
should  have  its  appropriate  place  and  be  kept  there 
when  not  in  use. 

The  untinted  and  often  dingy  walls  of  the  ordinary 
schoolroom  may  be  easily  decorated  in  some  cheap  way, 
that  ugliness  will  be  converted  into  beauty.  A  few 
hardy  vines  may  be  trained  to  run  over  them ;  or  failing 
in  this,  evergreen  branches  may  be  used  with  excellent 
effect.  In  summer,  bouquets  of  flowers  may  be  made 
available,  the  perfume  as  well  as  the  beauty  producing 
agreeable  impressions. 


ESTHETIC   CULTURE.  245 

School  Suwoundings. — In  the  choice  of  a  site,  re- 
gard should  be  had  to  its  beauty  as  well  as  to  its  health- 
fulness.  A  fine  slope  near  a  grove  of  trees,  an  outlook 
upon  a  body  of  water  or  over  a  valley,  or  a  sheltered 
nook  among  the  hills,  "will  furnish  beautiful  images, 
which  will  insensibly  take  possession  of  the  mi  mis  of 
the  pupils.  As  the  influence  which  the  site  affords  will 
affect  favorably  or  unfavorably  many  generations  of 
children,  it  seems  that  much  more  than  the  usual  amount 
of  attention  should  be  given  to  this  matter.  In  regard  to 
the  condition  and  care  of  the  school-yard,  grass  and  I 
are  indispensable,  and  flowers  are  very  desirable.  On 
the  negative  side,  rank  weeds  should  be  exterminated, 
and  no  foul  places  should  be  tolerated. 

Dress.  —  Attention  to  personal  appearance  is  one 
of  the  fundamental  requirements  of  aesthetic  culture, 
and  this  includes  dress.  Perfect  neatness  in  dress  is 
an  indispensable  requisite  demanded  alike  by  health, 
morality,  and  beauty.  In  addition,  the  latter  requires 
proper  attention  to  form,  color,  and  adaptation  to  special 
use.  Neither  costly  material  nor  fashion  necessarily 
has  any  connection  with  the  intrinsically  beautiful,  but 
there  is  a  demand  that  the  best  disposition  shall  be  made 
of  the  material  at  command. 

Habits  and  Manners. — Personal  habits  and  manners 
have  a  direct  bearing  upon  tins  subject.  The  sharp, 
abrupt  "words  of  command,  so  frequently  used  by  teach- 
ers, not  only  tend  to  excite  antagonism,  but  they  be- 
come sources  of  unamiable  expression  on  the  part  of 
pupils,  leading  directly  to  boorishness  of  behavior. 
Courtesy  upon  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupils  is 
demanded  alike  by  BBSthetics  and  morality.     Obedience 


246         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

is  much  more  quickly  and  willingly  yielded  to  a  pleas- 
ant request  than  to  a  stern  command  ;  and,  when  yielded 
in  the  one  case,  it  is  a  spontaneous  and  cheerful  act,  and 
in  the  other  it  is  the  sullen  compliance,  offspring  of 
fear.  Culture  in  this  direction  also  demands  that  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  cleaning  shoes  upon  entering 
the  room,  to  the  manner  of  walking  in  the  room,  and  to 
proper  position  in  study  and  recitation. 

In  the  detail  of  work  performed  by  the  pupil,  there 
is  an  opportunity  for  direct  aesthetic  culture.  Books 
should  be  kept  neat  and  in  their  places.  The  desks 
should  be  without  blot  or  mar.  The  writing  on  paper 
and  slates  should  always  be  neatly  done.  All  black- 
board work  should  be  neatly  arranged,  and  in  such  order 
that  the  successive  steps  can  be  easily  followed.  "While 
pupils  are  sometimes  impatient  of  criticism  of  slovenly 
work,  they  are  always  pleased  when  the  process  of  in- 
struction has  resulted  in  their  ability  to  do  neat  work. 

Drawing. — "While  the  manner  of  performing  work 
in  all  the  branches  may  be  made  to  contribute  to  aesthet- 
ic culture,  the  special  work  to  that  end  is  drawing,  and 
for  this  reason  drawing  should  be  made  a  part  of  the 
daily  work  in  every  grade  of  school.  Drawing  is  not,  as 
is  quite  generally  supposed,  a  study  merely  for  artists, 
but  it  is  of  the  highest  use  to  all,  physically  in  training 
the  muscles  of  the  hand,  intellectually  in  inciting  to 
correct  observation,  and  aesthetically  in  the  appreciation 
and  production  of  beauty  in  form.  It  is  also  the  hand- 
maid of  other  branches,  and  no  study  in  school  can  be 
pursued  in  which  drawing  in  some  form  may  not  be 
made  an  important  aid.     It  is  so  important  in  its  bearing 


AESTHETIC  CULTURE.  047 

upon  [esthetic  culture,  as  well  as  in  its  other  relations, 
that  a  somewhat  detailed  statement  of  its  successive 
seems  to  be  demanded. 

Muscular  Drill. — Experience  shows  that  when  draw- 
ing is  introduced  into  schools,  the  lessons  alternating 
with  penmanship,  the  latter  is  more  quickly  learned  than 
though  the  whole  time  had  been  spent  upon  it  alone. 
The  training  derived  from  drawing  gives  to  the  muscles 
of  the  hand  flexibility  and  accuracy  of  movement,  of  the 
greatest  value  in  all  departments  of  industry  where  deli- 
cacy of  touch  is  demanded.  The  exercises  that  give 
this  training  comprised  both  the  copying  of  pictures  of 
objects,  and  the  invention  of  new  designs  from  given 
elements. 

Cultivating  Observation. — The  end  next  to  be  at- 
tained in  drawing  is  the  habit  of  correct  observation. 
To  this  end,  there  must  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  copy- 
ing drawings  to  give  the  technical  method  of  represent- 
ing objects,  and  then  drill  in  drawing  real  objects. 
Success  in  this  is  of  great  importance  in  the  study  of 
the  physical  sciences,  as  the  study  gives  the  matter  for 
drawing,  and  the  drawing  leads  to  nicer  observation  in 
the  science.  This  power  to  represent  real  objects  is 
also  of  great  value  in  almost  every  kind  <»f  mechanical 
pursuit,  and  it  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  buci 
ful  art. 

Perspective  and  Shading. — Real  objects  must  be 
drawn  as  they  appear,  and  the  efforts  to  accomplish  this 
develop  the  facts  from  which  the  laws  of  perspective 
are  derived.  These  laws  are  then  applied  t<>  the  repre- 
sentation of  objects,  either  single  or  in  combination, 
greatly  facilitating  the  operation.     In  a  similar  way  the 


248  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

manner  of  representing  the  different  degrees  of  intensity 
of  light,  or  shading,  is  practised  as  an  art,  and  the  laws 
are  developed  and  applied  in  practice. 

Use  of  Colors.  —  The  liking  of  children  for  color 
may  be  turned,  to  good  account  in  this  direction.  The 
regular  color-lessons  in  the  primary  grades  are  for  the 
purpose  mainly  of  giving  the  pupils  the  names  and 
qualities  of  the  primary  colors,  and  their  more  simple 
combinations.  In  the  more  advanced  grades,  the  pupils 
may  be  led  to  gradually  substitute  color  for  the  black 
lines  in  shading,  and  by  easy  stages  to  the  use  of  color  in 
painting.  By  such  practical  exercises,  ideas  of  beauty 
in  color  may  be  developed  and  practically  applied. 

Industrial  Art. — In  the  higher  grades  the  princi- 
ples of  drawing  should  be  turned  in  the  direction  of  the 
industries.  As  in  the  advanced  courses  of  every  branch 
of  science,  the  methods  change  from  induction  to  deduc- 
tion, from  discovery  to  application.  The  laws  which 
have  been  inferred  from  practice  and  verified,  and  the 
skill  obtained  in  the  lower  grades,  need  now  be  applied 
to  specific  fields  of  industry,  and  the  aesthetic  sense  em- 
ployed in  engrafting  the  beautiful  upon  the  useful,  or 
in  so  constructing  the  useful  that  it  becomes  the  beauti- 
ful. At  this  point,  the  courses  of  instruction,  which  be- 
fore have  been  general,  may  now  diverge,  and  conform 
to  individual  tastes  or  to  prospective  vocations. 

Art  Proper. — The  greatest  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  drawing  in  school  is  the  aid  which  it  gives  to 
the  development  of  the  aesthetic  sense  in  all.  A  feeling 
of  respect  and  admiration  is  engendered  for  all  beauti- 
ful things,  and  with  it  a  corresponding  feeling  of  dis- 
gust at  the  essentially  ugly  and  vulgar.     The  aesthetic 


ESTHETIC   CULTURE.  249 

sense  comes  in  as  an  aid  to  the  moral  sense ;  and,  while 
the  latter  would  subordinate  all  things  to  goodness,  the 
former  would  make  goodness  so  beautiful  as  to  give  to  it 
an  additional  attraction.  But  these  lessons  have  another 
value.  They  afford  the  best  means  for  the  discovery  of 
those  who  have  a  peculiar  aptitude  for  artistic  work, 
and  they  furnish  the  best  opportunity  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  artistic  faculty.  When  drawing  in  our 
schools  becomes  general,  we  may  expect  not  only  a  more 
universal  appreciation  of  beauty  in  Nature  and  art,  but 
a  large  accession  to  the  ranks  of  time  artists. 

National  Art. — As  the  aesthetic  sense  becomes  de- 
veloped, and  aesthetic  ideas  are  disseminated,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  formation  of  a  distinctive  school  of  American 
art  is  frequently  discussed,  and  speculations  arc  indulged 
in  as  to  what  will  be  its  character.  AVe  believe  that  in 
the  future  such  a  school  will  appear,  but  only  its  more 
general  features  can  now  be  outlined.  It  will  evidently 
not  be  a  copy  of  the  art  of  antiquity,  nor  of  any  of  the 
schools  of  modern  Europe,  for  the  life  out  of  which 
these  schools  grew  was  provincial  compared  with  the 
broad  and  cosmopolitan  character  of  American  Bociety. 
It  cannot  be  a  mere  school  of  foreign  growth  grafted 
upon  American  life.  It  must  be  an  outgrowth  of  our 
own  conditions  and  necessities.  If  it  is  to  have  more 
than  a  mere  ephemeral  existence,  its  roots  must  be 
deeply  and  firmly  set  in  Nature,  and  it  must  find  its 
first  expression  in  personal  appearance  and  manners,  and 
in  the  best  possible  ordering  of  homes.  The  care  and 
arrangement  of  the  common  material  necessary  for  daily 
comfort  must  be  made  a  matter  of  prime  moment,  BO 
that  children  may  imbibe  ideas  of  beauty  from  the  firsl 


250         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

moment  of  conscious  existence.  National  art  will  come 
from  individual  culture,  as  national  morality  comes  from 
individual  character. 

The  common  schools  furnish  the  opportunity  for  the 
dissemination  of  the  aesthetic  ideas,  and  the  teachers  of 
the  country  are  the  custodians  of  the  future  of  national 
art,  as  well  as  of  national  intelligence.  If  true  to  their 
trusts  they  will  strive  as  earnestly  for  aesthetic  as  for  in- 
tellectual culture,  both  as  an  element  of  personal  char- 
acter and  as  a  means  of  instruction.  The  pupils  under 
their  care  will  be  trained  to  the  production  of  beautiful 
forms,  and  to  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in  Nature 
and  art.  The  taste  acquired  in  school  will  permeate  all 
the  homes  in  the  land  ;  and  from  these  homes,  trans- 
figured by  the  spirit  of  beauty,  an  American  art  will 
arise,  as  varied,  as  comprehensive,  and  as  original  as  the 
intelligence  and  character  of  the  American  people. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

MORAL    CULTURE. 

Moral  Aims. — To  attain  a  high  moral  character,  a 
modern  writer  says:  ""We  must  consider  the  demands 
of  the  present  time ;  become  enlightened  concerning 
our  practical  duties ;  learn  to  make  the  best  of  all  hu- 
man conditions  ;  seek,  amid  all  obstructions,  confusions, 
and  corruptions,  the  way  of  a  true  life ;  bear  testimony 
against  all  iniquity,  and  in  favor  of  all  righteousness ; 
and  dedicate  our  lives  to  the  reasonable  service  of  God 
and  man,  as  children  of  the  Highest,  and  as  brothers 
of  the  lowest." 

This  exalted  aim  may  be  considered  the  fruitage  of 
education  and  of  life,  and  it  becomes  a  question  of  great 
moment  as  to  how  far  it  may  be  attained  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  schools. 

Neglect  of  Moral  Instruction. — It  has  been  charged, 
with  some  show  of  reason,  that  in  our  modern  Bystem 
of  schools  intelligence  is  more  directly  sought  than  mo- 
rality, that  the  discriminative  and  executive  powers 
are  cultivated  to  the  neglect  of  the  regulative.  Making 
due  allowance  for  exaggeration  and  prejudice,  there  re- 


252         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mains  enough  of  truth  in  this  charge  to  demand  that 
its  causes  should  he  investigated  and  a  remedy  devised. 

Reasons  for  the  Neglect. — The  most  obvious  reasons 
for  the  neglect  of  moral  instruction  in  schools  are  that 
the  sciences  and  branches  that  treat  of  purely  intellec- 
tual matters  are  better  known  and  systematized  than 
those  that  treat  of  morals,  and  hence  are  more  easily 
taught ;  and  that  little  effort  has  been  made  to  examine 
morals  upon  the  scientific  side,  and  to  formulate  its 
principles  in  accordance  with  the  general  ideas  of  hu- 
man development. 

Another  reason  bearing  upon  the  same  subject  has 
been  the  prevalence  of  two  crude  philosophic  notions, 
antagonistic  to  each  other,  but  equally  fatal  to  the  in- 
troduction of  morality  into  schools.  The  first  of  these 
claims  that  moral  conduct  is  incident  to  intellectual 
culture,  and  hence  that  the  ordinary  exercises  of  the 
schools  are  sufficient  for  moral  purposes.  The  second, 
that  morality  belongs  exclusively  to  theology,  and  hence 
has  no  place  in  the  secular  scheme  of  State  education, 
or,  indeed,  in  any  but  strictly  theologic  schools. 

At  the  present  time,  however,  the  fact  that  morality 
does  not  receive  proper  attention  is  regarded  by  the 
most  thoughtful  teachers  and  friends  of  education  as  a 
grave  if  not  fatal  defect  in  any  system  of  education ; 
and  the  reasons  for  such  neglect  in  the  past  are  not  con- 
sidered so  formidable  or  fundamental  as  necessarily  to 
apply  to  the  schools  of  the  future.  The  old  philosophic 
notions  are  seriously  called  in  question,  and  there  is  an 
evident  desire  for  a  new  departure.  The  first  steps 
looking  toward  reform  require  an  examination  of  fun- 
damental principles. 


MORAL   CULTURE.  053 

What  is  Morality  ? — Tlic  field  of  morality  is  hu- 
manity, and  it  includes  all  the  possible  relations  which 
exist  between  human  beings.  A  man  has  duties  reli- 
gious toward  his  Maker  ;  duties  personal  to  himself ; 
duties  moral  toward  his  neighbor ;  and  duties  humane 
toward  the  lower  animals.  All  these  duties  are  im- 
perative, but  the  domain  of  each  is  distinct  from  the 
others.  It  is  only  when  relations  are  established  be- 
tween man  and  man  that  morality  arises  or  is  possible. 

In  a  loose  and  vague  way,  morality  is  made  to  define 
all  of  human  duty,  and  in  discussing  the  subject  much 
confusion  arises  from  the  different  definitions  which 
different  parties  give  to  it.  While  one  is  urging  the 
importance  of  duty  toward  God,  the  other  is  think ing 
about  duty  toward  men,  the  trouble  arising  from  con- 
founding religious  and  moral  duties.  We  are  thus  cart- 
ful to  give  the  exact  limits  to  the  subject,  as  we  regard 
it,  so  that  vexed  questions  not  germane  to  it  may  In- 
excluded,  and  so  that  the  attention  may  be  confined  to 
the  exact  subject  under  consideration.  Should  an  ob- 
jection be  made  that  our  definition  is  not  sufficiently 
comprehensive,  we  reply  that  we  will  then  confine  our 
discussion  to  that  branch  of  morals  which  considers  hu- 
man relations. 

Morals  thus  defined,  while  restricted  to  that   which 

is  human,  in  its  applications  includes  the  whole  field  of 

social  activities;  and  upon  its  principles  only  can  any 

rational  system  of  civil  government  or  political  economy 

tablished. 

Basis  of  Morals. — Every  human  being  lias  needs 
inherent  in  his  being,  and  directly  depending  upon  the 
fact  of  his  existence.     These  needs  create  demands  that 


254         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

must  be  supplied,  or  his  existence  soon  terminates.  For 
example,  he  needs  to  eat,  to  breathe,  and  to  preserve  a 
given  temperature ;  and  food,  air,  and  warmth  must  be 
supplied,  or  life,  which  is  his  by  the  divine  right  of 
its  being,  ceases. 

Extent  of  Needs. — These  needs  are  coextensive  with 
the  whole  nature  of  man,  physical,  mental,  and  moral. 
He  needs  physical  agencies  that  his  body  may  grow,  at- 
tain strength,  and  be  kept  in  health  ;  he  needs  materials 
of  study  and  guidance  that  his  mind  may  be  nurtured ; 
and  he  needs  good  example,  social  intercourse,  and  in- 
struction in  regard  to  conduct,  that  his  moral  sensibili- 
ties may  be  made  sensitive  and  excited  to  action. 

Equality  of  Needs. — Differences  in  environment,  in 
civilization,  in  national  characteristics,  and  in  individual 
character,  would  seem  to  indicate  a  difference  in  needs. 
Indeed,  many  needs  are  brought  into  existence  only  by 
the  development  of  the  individual  or  the  race.  But  the 
general  needs  of  all  are  the  same,  and  the  special  needs 
are  the  same  under  the  same  conditions.  Potentially, 
then,  the  needs  of  one  human  being  are  exactly  equal 
to  those  of  any  other  human  being. 

Basis  of  Mights. — The  demands  flowing  from  these 
needs  give  rise  to  individual  rights ;  and  to  every  need 
there  is  a  corresponding  right.  "We  have  physical  needs, 
and  a  right  to  all  the  physical  agencies  which  the  needs 
demand ;  mental  and  moral  needs,  and  a  right  to  all  the 
mental  and  moral  agencies  which  these  needs  demand. 
The  right  of  every  human  being  to  these  agencies  in- 
heres in  his  very  constitution,  and  is  a  part  of  his  being ; 
and  to  deprive  him  of  these  rights  would  be  to  rob 
him  of  a  portion  of  his  life. 


MORAL   CULTURE.  255 

Basis  of  Duty. — But  man  is  a  social  being,  and,  as 
a  member  of  community,  his  existence  is  bound  up 
with  other  existences.  Relations  are  established  "which, 
while  they  restrict  individual  freedom  on  one  side, 
vastly  multiply  individual  power  and  possibility  on  the 
other.  His  activities  are  supplemented  by  the  activities 
of  others.  From  his  position  as  a  member  of  society 
he  receives  help  from  others,  and  there  devolves  upon 
him  an  obligation  to  help  others  in  turn.  This  obliga- 
tion, which  we  call  moral  duty,  is  the  exact  reciprocal 
of  his  individual  rights,  and  there  can  be  no  possible 
right  without  a  corresponding  duty. 

Examples. — We  all  have  a  need  of  air,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, a  right  to  air.  But,  as  air  is  supplied  to  us 
naturally  in  abundance,  the  only  duty  of  others  in  re- 
gard to  our  supply  is  that  they  shall  not  interfere  with 
it,  either  restricting  its  quantity  or  vitiating  its  quality. 
The  duty  in  this  case  is  negative. 

We  all  have  a  need  of  food,  and  consequently  a  right 
to  food.  This  need  is  imperative  at  all  times,  and  the 
right  is  just  as  inherent  when  we  are  infants  or  disabled 
as  when  we  are  able  to  procure  our  own  food.  It 
follows  that  somebody  must  minister  to  our  necessities 
while  we  are  helpless  ;  and  it  equally  follows  that  we 
should  minister  to  others1  necessities  under  like  circum- 
stances. The  duty  of  others  to  supply  us  with  food, 
when  able  to  do  so  ourselves,  does  not  inhere,  for  the 
performance  of  such  an  act  would  be  a  sacrifice  of  their 
rights,  and  a  consequent  diminution  of  their  ability  to 
perform  their  real  duty.  This  duty  to  serve  others  is 
positive. 

Negative  and  Positive  Duties.-  Mora]  duties  are 


256         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

thus  seen  to  be  twofold — negative,  leading  to  a  respect 
for  the  rights  of  others,  and  positive,  demanding  service. 
Respect  for  rights  implies  that  our  every  act,  in  which 
others  are  interested,  or  which  in  any  way  affects  oth- 
ers, shall  be  based  upon  the  principle  that  every  human 
being  has  precisely  the  same  rights  as  ourselves,  no 
more,  no  less  ;  while  service  demands  that  we  shall  ac- 
tively supply  needs  when  by  so  doing  we  shall  promote 
human  welfare. 

The  demands  of  negative  duty  are  imperative,  that 
we  shall  refrain  from  injuring  the  quality  or  diminish- 
ing the  quantity  of  our  neighbor's  food  ;  from  injuring 
his  person ;  from  converting  his  property  to  our  own 
use  ;  from  restricting  his  liberty  to  think  and  to  form 
opinions  for  himself  ;  from  imputing  to  him  unworthy 
motives  in  differences  of  opinion ;  and  from  diminish- 
ing his  opportunities  to  earn  his  own  living  by  misin- 
terpreting his  acts  and  misrepresenting  his  motives. 

The  demands  of  positive  duty  are  equally  impera- 
tive. They  require  of  us  tender  nurture  for  every  child, 
wise  and  adequate  provision  for  the  sick  and  unfortu- 
nate, and  affectionate  care  for  the  aged  who  have  fin- 
ished life's  work.  Duty,  as  thus  defined,  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  that  ethical  law  known  as  the  "  golden  rule," 
and  our  constant  endeavor  should  be  to  make  this  rule 
a  practical  reality. 

Standard  of  Moral  Duty. — In  every  act  that  comes 
within  the  domain  of  morals  there  are  two  parties,  the 
actor  and  the  receiver  of  the  action.  In  his  act,  the  ac- 
tor may  perform  his  duties,  both  positive  and  negative, 
or  he  may  neglect  them,  and  his  decision  in  the  matter 
determines  the  character  of  the  act  as  far  as  he  is  con- 


MORAL  CULTURE.  057 

cerned.  If  the  question  :  "  "Will  this  act  conduce  to  the 
welfare  of  the  receiver,  or  to  human  welfare?"  is  an- 
swered in  the  affirmative,  the  act  is  approved  by  moral 
judgment,  and  is  right ;  if  answered  in  the  negative, 
the  action  is  condemned  by  moral  judgment,  and  is 
wrong.  The  decision  in  each  case  is  based  entirely 
upon  motive. 

The  receiver  of  the  action  has  an  entirely  different 
standard  of  judgment  in  regard  to  the  act  in  question. 
"Without  directly  considering  the  motives  of  the  actor, 
he  is  particularly  interested  in  the  results.  If  the  act 
conduces  to  his  welfare  it  is  good,  if  it  does  not  it  is  bad. 

In  every  moral  act  there  is  then  a  double  judgment, 
the  one  considering  its  results  upon  the  person  directly 
affected  or  upon  the  world  at  large,  and  the  other  deal- 
ing with  the  motive  of  the  actor,  and,  in  case  of  bad  re- 
sults, passing  judgment  upon  his  innocence  or  guilt. 
The  highest  morality,  or  the  interests  of  society  as  a 
whole,  demands  that  not  only  should  an  action  be  right, 
s] (ringing  from  good  motives,  but  that  it  should  also  be 
good,  producing  beneficent  results. 

The  fact  is  constantly  forced  upon  ns  that,  with  the 
best  of  intentions,  persons  are  constantly  performing 
acts  injurious  to  those  affected  by  them,  and  we  arc  Led 
to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  the  evil  results,  and  to  ascer- 
tain what  element  besides  good  motive  should  enter  into 
moral  action. 

Concrete  Examples. — A  mother  desires  the  welfare 
of  her  child,  and  is  unwearied  in  her  care  and  devotion. 
By  continual  self-sacrifice,  she  gratifies  its  every  desire 
and  caprice,  until  she  develops  in  it  selfishness  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  entirely  vitiate  its  character. 


258  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OP  TEACHING. 

A  father,  in  his  desire  to  repress  all  evil  tendencies 
in  his  child,  threatens  and  cajoles  by  turns,  is  terribly 
severe  or  forgetful  of  his  promises,  and  the  child  grows 
up,  very  acute  as  to  parental  moods,  but  with  little  con- 
trol of  temper,  and  with  little  regard  to  truth. 

A  teacher,  intent  upon  securing  good  conduct  and 
intellectual  progress  upon  the  part  of  his  pupils,  visits 
each  oifense  of  omission  or  commission  with  severe  pen- 
alties, thus  stifling  affection  and  developing  in  them 
ideas  of  brutality  and  revenge. 

A  physician  desires  to  relieve  the  pain  of  his  patient, 
and  effect  a  speedy  cure ;  yet,  by  a  mistake  in  the  nature 
of  the  case,  or  in  the  medicine  used,  he  administers  a 
poison  which  aggravates  the  disease  or  terminates  the 
life. 

The  captain  of  a  ship,  in  stress  of  weather,  to  pre- 
vent his  vessel  from  foundering,  battens  down  the 
hatchways,  and,  when  the  storm  has  passed,  finds  his 
passengers  smothered,  his  measures  to  preserve  their 
lives  having  caused  their  death. 

A  clergyman,  impressed  by  the  tremendous  conse- 
quences of  an  impenitent  life,  visits  a  sick  man,  and  by 
his  endeavors  to  save  produces  a  nervous  exhaustion 
which  results  in  death. 

Factors  of  Morality. — In  all  these  cases  the  motives 
have  been  good  while  the  results  have  been  evil ;  and 
we  see  that  by  a  wiser  judgment,  coming  from  a  higher 
intelligence,  the  evils  might  have  been  avoided.  The 
factors  of  morality  are  thus  seen  to  be  good  motive  and 
intelligence,  the  highest  morality  demanding  both  in 
the  highest  degree. 

Good  motive  is  a  fixed  factor.     It  is  the  disposition 


MORAL   CULTURE.  259 

to  do  right,  or  to  perform  the  acts  demanded  by  duty, 
and  is  the  highest  guide  in  determining  conduct.  It 
may  exist  in  individuals  mixed  more  or  less  with  selfish 
desires  and  propensities,  but  in  essential  character  it  is 
always  the  same. 

Intelligence,  on  the  contrary,  differs  with  the  indi- 
vidual, the  age,  and  the  race.  With  advancing  civiliza- 
tion, ideas  of  what  conduces  to  human  welfare  change, 
and  the  morality  of  one  age  is  considered  very  imper- 
fect in  the  next.  Absolute  morality  must  be  associated 
with  infinite  wisdom. 

Individual  Morality. — The  demands  of  morality 
upon  every  individual  are  that  he  should  perform  every 
duty  that  devolves  upon  him,  both  negative  and  posi- 
tive ;  that,  in  every  act  in  which  others  are  concerned, 
he  should  consider  their  welfare  equally  with  his  own  ; 
that  in  every  case  his  acts  should  conform  to  his  highest 
intelligence,  and  that  he  should  neglect  no  opportunity 
to  become  more  intelligent. 

Moral  Instruction  in  Schools. —  The  foregoing 
analysis  shows  the  nature  of  the  problem  which  we  are 
to  solve  in  education,  and  serves  as  a  guide  in  regard 
to  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  making  moral  instruc- 
tion a  part  of  the  school  course.  Without  discussing 
the  question  whether  the  disposition  to  do  right  comes 
from  the  operation  of  a  single  faculty  of  the  mind,  or 
is  the  resultant  of  the  combined  action  of  several  facul- 
ties, we  assume  this  position  as  incontrovertible,  that 
mural  power,  like  physical  and  intellectual  power,  is  de- 
veloped by  exercise,  and  can  be  greatly  increased  by 
systematic  training. 


260         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Force  of  Example. — "  As  is  the  teacher  so  is  the 
school,"  is  an  old  adage.  Children  are  imitative  beings, 
and,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  they  copy  the  man- 
ners of  those  with  whom  they  are  associated.  If  the 
teacher  is  domineering,  discourteous,  and  unjust,  through 
the  operation  of  this  imitative  propensity  the  pupils 
will  show  the  same  traits  ;  and,  unless  corrected  by  some 
strong  counteracting  influence,  they  will  become  life- 
habits.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  teacher  is  reasonable, 
kind,  just,  and  courteous,  the  same  imitative  propensity 
will  lead  the  pupils  to  copy  these  traits,  and  to  form 
corresponding  habits. 

The  manners  and  habits  of  the  teacher  are  thus  seen 
to  be  of  fundamental  importance  in  moral  training. 
Trustees  and  directors  of  schools  cannot  be  too  careful 
in  the  selection  of  teachers  ;  and  teachers,  knowing  that 
example  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  agencies 
operating  upon  childhood,  should  carefully  scrutinize 
their  own  conduct,  and  see  that  every  act  not  only 
springs  from  the  right  motive,  but  that  it  be  performed 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  carry  the  conviction  of  its  motive 
to  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 

Manners. — In  this  connection,  it  may  be  observed 
that  manners  are  intimately  associated  with  morals ; 
that  the  expression  of  the  act,  as  well  as  the  act  itself, 
has  its  moral  bearings.  Kindliness  will  generate  its 
like,  even  if  uncouthly  expressed ;  but  it  will  make  a 
much  more  favorable  and  lasting  impression  if  it  is 
shown  in  such  an  easy  and  appropriate  way  that  no  part 
of  the  attention  is  turned  from  the  act  itself  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  act  is  performed.  There  should  be  no 
occasion  that  the  admiration  for  moral  goodness  should 


MORAL  CULTURE.  2G1 

be  accompanied  by  excuses  for  coarse  language  and  im- 
proprieties of  attitude  and  gesture. 

Example  of  Ill-Manners. — Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  waa 
noted  for  his  kindliness  and  broad  sympathies  with  im- 
perfect and  suffering  humanity.  His  writings  are  full 
of  the  most  elevating  sentiments,  and  in  all  his  works 
there  is  nothing  ignoble.  So  tender  was  his  conscience 
that,  when  in  middle  life  and  at  the  height  of  his  re- 
nown, he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  his  native  town  of 
Uttoxeter,  and  stood  all  day,  with  head  uncovered,  in 
the  open  market  place,  to  atone  for  refusing  a  request 
of  his  father  in  boyhood.  All  admired  the  greatness  of 
his  genius  and  the  goodness  of  his  heart ;  yet  in  his  social 
intercourse  he  was  loud,  overbearing,  and  often  insolent, 
and  at  the  table  his  manner  of  eating  was  so  gross  as  to 
excite  universal  disgust.  To  his  intimate  associates  the 
coarseness  of  his  manners  in  a  great  measure  nullified 
the  pleasure,  which  the  brilliancy  of  his  conversation 
created,  and  the  influence  which  his  wisdom  merited. 

Limit  of  Responsibility. — As  the  influence  of  home 
and  of  general  society  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
school,  the  teacher  can  be  held  responsible  for  results 
only  so  far  as  his  own  influence  extends.  If  that  in- 
fluence, both  directly  and  indirectly,  has  always  been  in 
favor  of  the  highest  moral  excellence,  no  blame  can  at- 
tach to  him  if  other  and  adverse  influences,  over  which 
he  has  no  control,  have  proved  stronger  than  his  own. 

Moral  Sensibiliti/.—The  moral  sensibilities  <>t'  pupils 
should  be  awakened  and  made  acute.  T<>  this  end,  in 
all  social  intercourse  they  should  be  taught  to  re- 
spect the  rights  of  others  as  far  as  person  and  property 
are  concerned.     They  should  be  made  to  see  that  the 


262         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

hoyden  game  so  common,  where  one  pupil  takes  hold 
of  another  without  his  consent,  is  a  violation  of  personal 
rights.  The  care  of  older  pupils  for  the  young,  and  of 
the  strong  for  the  weak,  should  he  encouraged,  as  de- 
veloping in  them  ideas  antagonistic  to  mere  selfish  grati- 
fication. Bullying  and  outrage  on  the  part  of  the  strong 
should  be  repressed,  gently  but  firmly,  and  an  endeavor 
should  be  made  to  eradicate  all  tendencies  in  this  direc- 
tion. All  selfishness  should  be  made  odious  to  the  one 
exhibiting  it,  by  contrasting  the  act  with  one  of  an  oppo- 
site character,  and  all  unselfish  acts  should  receive  from 
the  teacher  a  quiet  recognition  that  the  pupil  can  well 
understand.  By  continual  vigilance,  stimulating  right 
conduct  and  repressing  wrong,  a  public  sentiment  will 
be  developed  in  the  school  in  the  direction  of  justice 
and  kindliness,  and  the  discipline  of  the  school  will  go 
on  by  the  action  of  social  forces  without  the  direct  in- 
terference of  the  teacher.  The  good  conduct  which 
this  public  sentiment  demands  will  gradually  harden 
into  habits  which  last  through  life. 

Incidental  Moral  Lessons. — Pestalozzi' s  first  expe- 
rience as  a  teacher  was  at  Stanz,  where  he  had  the  en- 
tire care  of  a  hundred  destitute  children  living  in  an  old 
convent.  The  accommodations  were  poor  and  the  food 
coarse  and  scanty.  While  there  a  fire  took  place  in  the 
neighboring  village  of  Altdorf,  by  which  a  large  num- 
ber of  people  were  rendered  homeless.  The  sudden 
calamity  called  for  immediate  relief.  Pestalozzi  gave 
an  account  of  the  fire  to  his  pupils,  and  described  the 
destitution  which  had  followed.  He  told  them  how 
many  little  children  like  themselves  were  suffering  from 
cold  and  hunger.    "When  their  sympathies  were  excited, 


MORAL   CULTURE.  2G3 

he  asked,  "  Can  we  do  anything  to  relieve  this  suffer- 
ing ? "  Several  of  the  pupils  at  once  proposed  that  the 
children  be  invited  to  Stanz  as  members  of  their  own 
little  community.  "  But,"  said  Pestalozzi,  "  if  they 
come  they  must  share  your  accommodations  and  food  ; 
and,  in  consequence,  your  own  comforts  will  be  1<  ■.--, 
and  probably  many  times  you  will  not  have  food  enough 
to  satisfy  your  hunger.'' 

The  pupils,  however,  insisted,  and  the  invitation 
was  given  and  accepted.  Not  a  single  murmur  was 
ever  heard  in  consequence  of  the  privations  which  this 
act  entailed.  On  the  contrary,  the  guests  were  eagerly 
welcomed,  and  treated  with  special  marks  of  respect 
and  honor.  This  lesson  in  practical  benevolence  sunk 
deep  into  their  hearts,  enriching  and  ennobling  their 
lives  for  all  time  ;  and  the  event  goes  into  history  and 
literature  as  a  monument  to  the  wisdom  of  the  teacher 
and  the  acute  moral  sensibility  of  the  school,  and  as  an 
incentive  to  higher  endeavor  on  the  part  of  all  teachers. 

Incidents  arise  in  every  school  which  the  skillful 
teacher  may  turn  to  good  advantage  in  inculcating  a 
moral  lesson.  A  child  has  lost  his  dinner;  who  will 
share  theirs  with  him  (  AVho  will  contribute  to  the 
cleanliness,  the  comfort,  and  the  adornment  of  the 
schoolhouse  ?  Who  will  refrain  from  injuring  or  soil- 
ing the  schoolhouse  in  any  way  ?  Not  a  day  or  an  lioui 
passes  without  affording  an  opportunity  for  repressing  ac- 
tions that  will  give  pain  to  others,  or  for  the  performance 
of  acts  that  will  give  pleasure  to  others.  The  attend- 
ance at  school  of  a  deformed  child,  or  one  so  differing 
from  the  others  as  to  attract  attention,  may  be  made  the 
occasion  for  deep  and  lasting  moral  impressions,  and  the 


264         PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACIIING. 

school-life  of  the  unfortunate  may  be  made  so  pleasant 
by  the  affectionate  attitude  of  his  schoolmates  as  to  com- 
pensate, to  a  large  extent,  for  the  privations  which  his 
unfortunate  condition  entails.  A  case  of  destitution  in 
the  neighborhood  may  occasion  the  voluntary  offers  of 
service  which  requires  sacrifice  of  pleasure,  time,  and 
comfort ;  and  when  this  is  accomplished  a  great  step  is 
gained  in  the  triumph  of  duty  over  selfishness. 

"  The  Holy  Supper  is  kept  indeed, 
In  whatso  we  share  with  another's  need; 
Not  that  which  we  give  but  what  we  share, 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare !  " 

Care  must  be  taken  by  the  teacher,  in  all  such  cases, 
that  the  good  deed  has  a  distinct  recognition  ;  and  care 
must  also  be  taken  that  the  feeling  excited,  and  the 
consequent  benevolent  action,  shall  be  directed  to  cases 
of  real  distress  ;  for  misapplied  benevolence  and  sacri- 
fice always  lead  to  evil  results. 

Negative  Results. — The  moral  sensibilities  of  pupils 
may  be  blunted  or  destroyed  by  unwise  action  on  the 
part  of  teachers.  An  unmerited  punishment  may  in- 
flict an  injury  for  life.  Dr.  Carpenter  says  :  "  Nothing 
tends  so  much  to  prevent  the  healthful  development  of 
the  moral  sense  as  the  infliction  of  punishment  which 
the  child  feels  to  be  unjust ;  and  nothing  retards  the 
acquirement  of  the  power  of  directing  the  intellectual 
processes  so  much  as  the  emotional  disturbance  which 
the  feeling  of  injustice  provokes."  A  pupil  accustomed 
to  see  others  treated  brutally  becomes  hardened,  and 
loses  that  acute  sympathy  with  suffering  which  is  the 
impelling  force  to  service  when  such  duty  is  demanded. 


MORAL  CULTURE.  265 

In  cases  where  brutality  is  very  frequent,  children  may 
learn  even  to  take  delight  in  suffering,  thus  nullifying 
moral  culture,  reversing  the  moral  law,  and  developing 
a  demoniac  rather  than  a  moral  character.  Denuncia- 
tions, sarcastic  remarks  calculated  to  wound  the  sensi- 
bilities, scoldings,  uncharitableness,  exhibitions  of  fa- 
voritism, unnecessary  rales  and  commands,  and  all  forms 
of  caprice  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher,  have  a  tendency 
to  produce  these  negative  moral  results  in  the  minds  of 
the  pupils.  By  a  careless  discipline  and  a  slip-shod  ad- 
ministration of  justice  in  school,  children  grow  up  with 
little  idea  of  self-control,  with  their  regulative  faculties 
entirely  undeveloped,  and  they  often  pass  through  life 
intent  upon  the  gratification  of  personal  desires,  but  en- 
tirely insensible  to  the  welfare  of  others. 

Labor  and  Service. — To  arouse  moral  sensibility  is 
one  thing,  to  direct  it  in  the  channels  of  proper  expen- 
diture is  quite  another.  The  feeling  of  sympathy  which 
has  been  developed  may  be  wasted  in  mere  sentiment, 
as  when  a  tale  of  suffering  causes  tears,  and  tears  only  ; 
or  it  may  be  expended  upon  unworthy  objects,  us  when 
alms  are  given  to  professional  beggars,  directly  encour- 
aging idleness  and  vice  ;  or  it  may  be  expended  in  cases 
where  it  relieves  distress  or  encourages  worthy  and  no- 
ble effort.  In  the  latter  case  only  does  the  act  make  its 
proper  impression,  and  the  feeling  become  an  element 
of  character.  It  is  incumbent  on  the  teacher,  then,  not 
only  to  arouse  sensibilities  but  to  direct  them  to  legiti- 
mate ends,  to  encourage  the  conversion  of  sympathetic 
feeling  into  acts  of  service.  The  importance  of  securing 
the  manifestation  of  kindly  intentions  in  muscular  ac- 
tion can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
12 


2G6         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

One  of  the  first  lessons  in  unselfishness  which  a  child 
learns  is  when  it  performs  an  act  of  real  service  for  its 
parents,  and  the  glow  of  pleasure  which  results  from  a 
knowledge  that  it  is  a  service,  and  is  recognized  as  such, 
leads  to  a  repetition  of  similar  acts.  The  teacher  may- 
make  use  of  this  principle  of  action,  and  stimulate  the 
moral  powers,  by  asking  little  acts  of  service ;  though 
the  requests  of  this  character  should  not  be  too  frequent, 
nor  should  they  convey  the  idea  that  they  are  made 
through  the  indolence  of  the  teacher. 

Caution. — Every  emotion  has  its  natural  and  proper 
channel  of  expenditure.  Pity  for  suffering  finds  its 
proper  expenditure  in  acts  of  relief.  To  witness  dis- 
tress that  we  cannot  in  any  way  alleviate  is  to  excite 
sensibilities  which  cannot  be  properly  expended,  and 
the  effect  is  an  intellectual  and  moral  derangement. 
The  aroused  emotion  may  react,  producing  physical  and 
mental  prostration,  or  it  may  be  expended  in  channels 
quite  different  from  the  legitimate  ones.  For  example, 
the  sight  of  squalor,  sordidness,  and  misery,  which  can- 
not be  relieved,  may  excite  an  emotion  of  pity,  which 
may  assume  the  form  of  frenzy,  and  expend  itself  in 
rage  ;  or  the  emotion  may  expend  itself  in  sensual  in- 
dulgence, and  the  person  seek  relief  in  the  f orgetfulness 
of  intoxication. 

In  his  endeavors  to  excite  moral  action,  the  teacher 
should  take  care  to  avoid  cases  of  this  character,  when 
the  emotion  excited  cannot  be  expended  in  legitimate 
acts  of  relief.  To  this  end  details  of  stories  of  horrible 
destitution  and  suffering,  of  fire  and  shipwreck,  of  rail- 
road accidents,  and  of  war  and  pestilence,  should  be 
avoided  altogether. 


MORAL  CULTURE.  907 

Recognition  of  Well-Doing. — In  the  matter  of  recog- 
nition of  well-doing,  two  extremes  are  to  be  avoided. 
By  praise,  the  pupil  loses  the  glow  of  satisfaction  that 
comes  from  an  unselfish  performance  of  service  which 
has  afforded  relief  or  assistance  to  others,  and  there  is 
substituted  for  it  a  self-satisfaction,  in  which  the  virtue 
of  the  act  and  the  praise  are  mingled  ;  but,  by  repeat- 
ing the  process,  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  praise 
becomes  more  pronounced,  until  the  quality  of  the  act 
is  lost  sight  of  in  the  desire  to  secure  the  praise. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  service  is  received  with  entire 
indifference,  the  pupil  has  little  guide  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  acts  which  he  performs,  and  little  encouragement 
to  persevere  in  well-doing.  With  an  adult,  whose  judg- 
ment has  been  matured  by  experience,  the  matter  of 
recognition  may  be  of  little  or  no  importance  in  the 
performance  of  duty ;  but  with  children  it  is  one  of  the 
most  potent  forces  which  urges  them  to  action,  and 
which  leads  them  to  discriminate  between  desirable  and 
undesirable  acts. 

This  recognition  may  be  made  by  a  glance  of  the 
eye,  a  modulation  of  tone,  or  a  word  of  approbation, 
which,  adjusted  to  time  and  circumstance,  will  make 
deep  impressions,  and  become  powerful  incentives  to  a 
repetition  of  similar  acts  in  the  future.  In  this  recog- 
nition motives  should  be  considered,  and  the  praise 
should  not  be  withheld  even  if  the  service  has  not  been 
productive  of  good.  In  case  of  evil  results,  the  faults 
of  judgment  may  be  pointed  out,  with  no  censure  either 
expressed  or  implied.  In  the  bestowal  of  approbation 
a  strict  impartiality  should  be  observed  toward  all. 
The  sensibilities  of  children   are  often    wounded,  and 


268  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

the  moral  tone  of  the  whole  school  lowered,  by  praise 
and  censure  bestowed  through  caprice  or  favoritism. 

School  Government. — All  the  agencies  used  to  se- 
cure good  order  and  good  conduct  in  school  should  be 
considered  only  as  means  for  moral  instruction  and 
training.  The  objective  point  in  all  school  government 
is  to  so  develop  the  regulative  powers  of  each  pupil 
that  unruly  desires  and  passions  are  kept  within  their 
legitimate  sphere ;  that  the  lower  propensities  are 
brought  under  the  control  of  the  higher  sentiments  ; 
and  that  good  conduct  be  the  result  of  a  growth  from 
within,  rather  than  of  an  enforcement  from  without. 
The  end  is  entirely  a  moral  one,  and  all  considerations 
outside  of  the  strict  letter  of  moral  relations  should  be 
discarded  as  obstructive  to  this  end  and  as  demoralizing 
to  the  school. 

Obstructive  Considerations. — In  times  past  there  has 
been  great  effort  wasted  in  the  supposed  necessity  of 
"  sustaining  the  dignity  of  the  teacher,"  of  "  vindicating 
the  majesty  of  the  law,"  and  of  "  maintaining  order  for 
order's  sake."  All  these  considerations  disappear  when 
we  see  the  character  of  the  relations  which  exist  between 
teacher  and  pupil,  and  fully  understand  that  all  policies 
in  regard  to  government  are  to  be  settled  solely  upon 
moral  grounds.  The  question  which  the  teacher  should 
ask,  when  he  performs  an  act  toward  an  individual  pu- 
pil, or  devises  a  measure  that  affects  the  school,  is  the 
same  that  morality  demands  should  be  asked  upon  all 
occasions  when  an  act  is  contemplated  in  which  others 
are  interested  :  "  Will  this  act  conduce  to  the  welfare 
of  those  affected  by  it,  or  to  general  welfare  ? "     If  this 


MORAL   CULTURE.  2G9 

question  is  answered  in  tlie  affirmative,  then  the  act  La 
right,  and  the  result  will  be  beneficial,  provided  the  re- 
lations in  all  particulars  have  been  fully  comprehended. 
If  the  question  is  answered  in  the  negative,  then  the 
act  is  wrong,  and  no  considerations  of  dignity,  law,  or 
order  can  make  it  right,  or  justify  the  purpose  in  per- 
forming it. 

"We  may  say,  in  passing,  that  if  the  attention  of  the 
teacher  is  solely  directed  to  moral  aims;  if  he  sincerely 
wishes  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  pupils,  and  has 
the  intelligence  requisite  to  understand  the  moral  ques- 
tions involved  in  his  relations  and  acts ;  and  if,  acting 
upon  these  principles,  he  adjudicates  each  case  as  it 
arises  in  the  spirit  of  justice  and  kindness  :  incidentally 
he  will  better  maintain  his  own  dignity,  vindicate  the 
law,  and  sustain  order,  than  though  he  should  conscious- 
ly devote  himself  to  these  ends. 

Changes  desirable. — "With  the  moral  idea  dominant, 
that  inflexibly  demands  good  motive  as  prompting  to 
exevy  act.  and  is  content  with  nothing  less  than  good 
results,  and  with  the  old  crude  ideas  of  the  nature  of 
school  government  and  of  the  exceptional  position  of 
the  teacher  eliminated,  all  the  old  brutal  notions  in  re- 
gard to  methods  of  maintaining  order  will  disappear, 
and  the  reign  of  justice  will  supersede  the  reign  of  force. 

The  highest  morality  demands,  upon  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  a  genuine  desire  to  make  every  act  tell  for  the 
benefit  of  his  pupils;  a  knowledge  of  relations  which 
will  enable  him  to  wisely  adapt    means   to  end-:  a  for- 

getfulness  and  subordination  of  self  in  the  work  in 

which  he  is  engaged  ;  and  an  original  force  of  character 
which  will  assert  itself,  and  exact  that  deference  which 


270  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

is  due  worth  and  worth  only.  lie  must  not  only 
feel  kindly  but  he  must  make  kindliness  felt ;  he  must 
not  only  deal  justly  but  he  must  enthrone  justice,  and 
make  it  so  altogether  lovely  as  to  exact  a  willing 
homage  of  all.  Courteous  in  his  intercourse  with  his 
pupils,  he  receives  courtesy  in  return  :  kindly  in  his 
feelings,  he  begets  kindness  in  them ;  just  in  his  acts, 
he  creates  a  sentiment  of  justice  as  a  fundamental  mo- 
tive ;  patient  and  gentle  in  his  manners,  he  elevates  and 
refines  ;  zealous  in  his  work,  he  kindles  enthusiasm  and 
awakens  aspiration  ;  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  others, 
he  checks  selfishness  and  induces  a  noble  emulation  for 
the  attainment  of  the  higher  life. 

Restraint. — Evil  conduct  must  not  be  permitted, 
but  the  teacher  must  discriminate  in  regard  to  its  char- 
acter, and  give  to  each  case  its  appropriate  treatment. 
Habits  of  self-indulgence  must  be  broken  up  by  inciting 
to  active  services  ;  selfishness  must  be  counteracted  by 
exciting  sympathy  for  others  ;  and  thoughtlessness  must 
be  cured  by  the  inflexible  demand  that  atonement  must 
be  made  for  the  fault.  Teachers  must  also  keep  in 
mind  that  bad  conduct  is  as  often  the  result  of  moral 
ignorance  as  of  moral  depravity,  and  calls  for  instruc- 
tion rather  than  censure  or  punishment.  Turbulence, 
violence,  and  open  disregard  of  common  decorum  must 
be  restrained  by  physical  means,  if  others  fail,  until  op- 
portunity is  given  for  the  operation  of  moral  influences 
and  the  awakening  of  moral  powers. 

Indirect  Moral  Influences. — So  far  the  practical 
course  of  moral  instruction  recommended  has  been 
mainly  incidental.  The  teacher's  work  has  been  to 
surround  the  pupil  with  influences  and  agencies  calcu- 


MORAL   CULTURE.  271 

lated  to  awaken  and  strengthen  moral  impression?,  and 
to  check  selfish  propensities.  The  pupils  insensibly  im- 
bibe and  assimilate  moral  sentiments.  Their  moral  na- 
ture is  developed  through  affection  which  is  awakened 
by  parental  and  friendly  care  ;  through  imitation  when 
they  witness  unselfish  acts  on  the  part  of  others  ;  through 
sympathy  with  suffering  and  distress  whenever  cases  of 
the  kind  come  to  their  notice  ;  and  through  experience 
which  progressively  enables  them  to  put  themselves  in 
another's  place,  and  so  fully  realize  the  results  of  their 
own  action.  Moral  actions  practised  during  the  school- 
days crystallize  into  principles  and  become  fixed  habits, 
which  not  only  regulate  moral  conduct  in  specific  cases, 
but  which  finally  so  take  possession  of  the  whole  being 
as  to  make  moral  action  instinctive  and  unconscious. 

Dangers  of  Neglect. — A  neglect  of  this  indirect 
moral  teaching  is  fatal  to  the  formation  of  the  highest 
character.  Habits  of  self-indulgence  formed  in  child- 
hood arc  seldom  or  never  fully  eradicated.  While  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  give  direction  to  the  unfolding 
thought,  and  to  the  unformed  habits,  the  bent  once  es- 
tablished, and  the  vital  currents  flowing  in  a  given  way, 
a  change  can  be  effected  only  by  violent  effort,  and  by 
a  great  loss  of  power.  In  point  of  time  the  incidental 
instruction  should  precede  formal  moral  instruction,  so 
that,  in  the  demonstration  of  moral  principles,  an  appeal 
may  be  made  directly  to  consciousness  and  experience. 
As  in  all  other  branches  of  thought  and  activity,  the 
art  precedes  the  science;  and  the  philosophic  principles 
which  the  science  unfolds  are  derived  directly  from  the 
art  which  has  insensibly  grown  and  been  put  in  prac- 
tice during  all  the  years  of  conscious  existence. 


272  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

Direct  Moral  Teach  ixg. — The  moral  impressions 
made  by  the  indirect  method  of  teaching  need  be  sup- 
plemented by  direct  lessons  bearing  upon  the  same  sub- 
ject. The  emotions  arising  from  sympathy  should  be 
accompanied  step  by  step  by  an  intelligence  in  regard 
to  the  circumstances  which  excited  them,  and  to  the 
methods  in  which  they  may  be  properly  expended.  Sen- 
sibilities in  regard  to  moral  acts  should  be  supplemented 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  general  laws  of  moral  conduct. 
Moral  art  should  finally  terminate  in  moral  science. 

In  teaching  morals,  the  same  laws  prevail  as  in  teach- 
ing other  branches.  The  mind  must  first  be  trained  to 
observe,  compare,  and  classify  facts,  and  then  to  draw 
inferences  from  them.  These  inferences  will  succes- 
sively become  more  abstract,  until  they  contain  the 
most  comprehensive  moral  law;  and  the  law  derived 
from  observation  and  experience  can  be  taken  as  a  guide 
in  new  experiences. 

Precept  and  Practice. — Precept  has  but  little  influ- 
ence upon  the  mind  in  awakening  the  moral  nature. 
Homilies,  the  repetition  of  moral  rules  and  sentiments, 
and  what  pupils  call  "  preaching,"  will  be  found  of  lit- 
tle or  no  value.  The  truth  embodied  in  the  precept  is 
usually  so  general  in  its  character  that  it  weighs  little 
against  concrete  wants  and  personal  desires.  The  les- 
son sought  to  be  enforced,  having  np  root  in  experience, 
takes  but  feeble  hold  of  the  mind.  Repetition  only 
intensifies  the  difficulty.  The  words,  which  at  first  had 
little  meaning,  soon  become  a  mere  formula  with  no  more 
sense  than  a  succession  of  inarticulate  sounds.  Finding 
that  the  formula  is  considered  important,  independent 
of  his  ability  to  comprehend  it,  the  pupil  falls  into  the 


MORAL   CULTURE.  273 

habit  of  regarding  the  words  and  of  neglecting  the 
thoughts  which,  the  words  were  designed  to  convey,  a 
habit  fatal  to  both  intellectual  and  moral  improvement. 
Before  a  moral  precept  can  be  fully  comprehended,  the 
moral  sensibilities  must  be  aroused  in  the  direction  of 
that  particular  truth,  and  the  sensibility  exhibited  by 
some  beneficent  deed. 

Use  of  Common  Incidents. — Besides  their  indirect 
use,  as  has  already  been  indicated,  common  incidents 
may  be  made  the  texts  of  direct  moral  lessons.  Some 
event  has  happened  in  the  neighborhood,  or  is  related 
in  the  newspapers  in  which  the  pupils  take  a  lively  in- 
terest. The  matter  is  taken  up  and  discussed  before 
the  class  or  the  school.  All  the  facts  bearing  upon  the 
case  are  given.  Conflicting  statements  are  harmonized 
as  far  as  possible.  The  whole  is  made  into  a  continuous 
narrative,  so  that  the  relations  of  the  facts  may  be  seen. 
The  pupils  assist  in  the  process.  Their  sympathy  is 
excited,  and  they  are  called  upon  to  pass  judgment  upon 
the  different  acts,  the  probable  motive  of  the  actor,  and 
the  effect  of  the  acts  upon  all  the  parties  interested. 
Such  a  process  accustoms  the  pupil  to  look  at  the 
moral  side  of  every  act ;  and  by  it  three  things  arc  ac- 
complished— moral  feeling  is  aroused,  intellectual  ap- 
proval of  the  right  course  is  secured,  and  a  stimulus  is 
given  to  practical  good  conduct. 

Sometimes  controversies  arising  in  the  school  itself 
may  be  made  the  occasion  for  deriving  important  moral 
inferences.  The  school  may  be  organized  into  a  court, 
in  which  testimony  is  taken  and  decisions  rendered.  In 
exercises  employing  common  incidents  connected  with 
the  school  or  neighborhood,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 


274:         PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

avoid  subjects  which  will  arouse  prejudice  and  ill-feel- 
ing, or  will  array  the  school  in  opposing  factions. 

Use  of  Literature. — For  the  purposes  of  illustrat- 
ing a  moral  truth,  miscellaneous  literary  selections  may 
be  substituted  for  the  formal  reading-lessons  of  the 
text-book.  With  a  little  care  selections  may  be  made, 
that  are  adapted  to  any  grade  of  school,  and  to  almost 
any  special  occasion.  The  value  of  the  lessons  derived 
from  these  exercises  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  interest 
which  may  be  excited  in  discussing  them.  A  mere 
reading  of  the  most  exalted  sentiments  without  note  or 
comment  is  productive  of  little  or  no  good.  Such  a 
practice  is  equivalent  to  the  teaching  of  morals  by  pre- 
cept, the  ideas  failing  to  reach  the  mind,  and  the  words 
producing  only  reflex  nervous  action. 

Besides  the  immediate  moral  lesson  to  be  derived 
from  these  literary  selections,  a  great  good  arises  from . 
making  the  pupil  familiar  with  the  best  productions  of 
the  world,  increasing  his  intellectual  grasp  and  filling 
his  mind  with  noble  thoughts  and  images.  The  taste 
is  also  cultivated,  and  both  feeling  and  judgment  unite 
in  giving  preference  to  that  which  is  pure  and  elevating. 

Abuse  of  Literature. — Nothing  is  more  fatal  to  in- 
tellectual and  moral  growth  than  a  devotion  to  low  and 
sensational  literary  works.  The  mind  is  kept  in  a  state 
of  dreamy  indolence,  or  of  a  feverish  unrest.  Interest 
is  excited  in  unreal  and  impossible  events,  and  abnormal 
desires  are  awakened  which  cannot  be  gratified  in  the 
ordinary  process  of  human  affairs.  Like  the  growth 
of  a  poisonous  fungus,  the  taste  for  this  literature  ab- 
sorbs the  vital  forces  and  destroys  all  that  is  noble  in 
life.     It  awakens  no  moral  sentiment  and  renders  the 


MORAL   CULTURE.  275 

mind  impatient  of  all  kinds  of  moral  restraint.  It  ends 
by  the  complete  destruction  of  the  regulative  powers, 
and  the  surrender  of  the  whole  being  to  impulse  and 
caprice.  To  prevent  this  disastrous  result,  ceaseless 
effort  should  be  made  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  the  works 
of  the  great  masters  of  human  thought.  Experience 
shows  that  there  is  a  no  more  effectual  way  to  prevent 
the  mind  from  dwelling  upon  impure  and  gross  sub- 
jects than  by  tilling  it  completely  with  those  of  an  op- 
posite character. 

Use  of  History. — The  study  of  history  may  be  made 
to  bear  directly  upon  morals.  The  acts  of  different  per- 
sonages in  history  may  be  carefully  examined  in  connec- 
tion with  surrounding  conditions  and  relations ;  and  from 
all  the  circumstances,  inference  may  be  drawn  in  regard 
to  the  motives  which  prompted  the  acts,  and  to  the 
effect  of  the  acts  upon  the  community.  Comparisons 
may  be  instituted  between  the  careers  of  different  per- 
sons, both  in  regard  to  motive  and  influence.  The 
effect  of  personal  character,  whether  selfish  or  unselfish, 
upon  the  nation  or  the  age  should  receive  particular  at- 
tention. From  individuals  the  examination  may  be  car- 
ried to  policies  as  affecting  national  welfare,  and  to  the 
general  character  and  career  of  nations  as  affecting  civ- 
ilization and  the  world. 

History  should  also  be  presented  in  such  a  way  as 
to  show  how  national  greatness  and  national  decay  have 
largely  depended  upon  moral  causes.  It  should  deal 
with  principles  and  show  the  inevitable  result  of  con- 
duct, whether  of  individuals  or  nations  ;  and,  finally,  it 
should  show  the  gradual  change  of  the  existing  oations 
of  the  earth,  from   a  state  of  barbarism   where  brute 


276         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

strength  was  the  only  element  of  control,  to  that  of 
civilization  where  moral  and  intellectual  forces  are  pro- 
gressively becoming  more  powerful. 

Concrete  Examples. — There  can  be  no  more  effective 
stimulus  to  patriotism  than  the  story  of  the  trials,  the 
sufferings,  and  the  sacrifices  of  our  fathers  in  grappling 
with  Nature,  in  converting  a  savage  wilderness  into 
fruitful  fields,  and  in  engaging  in  a  long  and  desperate 
war  rather  than  submit  to  a  policy  which  deprived  them 
of  their  just  rights.  The  struggles  of  heroes  for  their 
country's  freedom,  the  more  obscure  struggles  of  brave 
men  for  individual  liberty,  the  sufferings  of  martyrs  for 
conscience'  sake,  and  the  battles  and  triumphs  of  truth 
everywhere  all  tend  to  excite  deep  emotion,  and  a  warm 
admiration  for  an  unselfish  devotion  to  truth.  These 
records  may  be  made  the  inspiration  of  childhood  in 
very  tender  years.  The  picture  of  Sir  Philip  Sydney, 
mortally  wounded,  motioning  away  the  cup  of  water 
from  his  parched  lips,  to  relieve  the  thirst  of  a  dying 
soldier  "  because  his  needs  are  greater  than  mine,"  is 
one  of  such  moral  grandeur  that  it  ennobles  every  heart 
where  the  lesson  finds  lodgment. 

Defects  in  Historical  Study. — Much  of  that  which 
passes  as  historical  study  has  but  little  worth  from  the 
moral  point  of  view.  The  process  of  committing  texts 
to  memory  in  historical  study  is  directly  antagonistic  to 
moral  as  well  as  to  intellectual  progress.  So  great  a 
stress  is  laid  upon  words  that  the  meaning  becomes  of 
secondary  importance,  or  is  altogether  neglected ;  the 
mind  fails  to  notice  relations  in  which  morals  have  their 
root,  and  there  results  a  mental  habit  which  overlooks 
relations  everywhere.     The  mere  chronologies  of  na- 


MORAL   CULTURE.  277 

tions,  the  details  of  battles,  and  the  succession  of  dynas- 
ties, by  themselves,  are  of  little  importance  for  mental 
development  or  practical  guidance,  or  as  a  stimulant  to 
good  conduct.  The  study  which  contents  itself  with 
the  mere  facts  of  history,  without  considering  their  re- 
lations and  significance,  lacks  all  those  elements  which 
give  to  history  its  greatest  value,  and  is  unworthy  of 
practice  in  any  intelligent  system  of  teaching. 

Moral  Science. — With  the  more  advanced  classes 
the  inductions  and  inferences  which  have  been  made 
from  the  practice  and  the  objective  study  of  morals 
may  be  brought  together,  and  presented  in  a  subjective 
form,  constituting  the  science  of  morals.  The  princi- 
ples of  morals,  as  given  in  the  commencement  of  this 
chapter,  should  be  thoroughly  treated  and  illustrated. 
The  limits  of  moral  action  and  the  field  of  moral  duty 
should  be  strictly  defined.  The  sequence  and  depend- 
ence of  needs,  rights,  and  duties  should  be  brought  to 
the  comprehension  of  all.  The  standard  of  moral 
judgment  should  be  made  so  familiar  that  its  use  would 
become  an  ordinary  habit  of  the  mind,  and  an  analysis 
of  the  moral  character  of  an  act  would  antecede  the 
act  itself.  The  pupil  should  be  made  to  see  and  feel 
that  beneficent  motive  is  a  necessary  element  in  every 
life  worth  living  ;  that  consideration  for  the  welfare  of 
others  is  just  as  much  a  necessity  as  attention  to  per- 
sonal welfare ;  and  that  one  of  the  great  purposes  of 
life  is  to  adjust  our  acts  so  that  the  desire  to  promote 
human  welfare  shall  always  be  attained  to  its  fullest  ex- 
tent. 

This  view  of  human  duty  makes  personal  and  pub- 
lic welfare  identical,  and  shows  that  their  apparent  an- 


278         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF   TEACHING. 

tagonism  has  grown  out  of  unintelligent  and  imperfect 
knowledge  of  human  relations,  and  of  practices  in  ac- 
cordance with  such  imperfect  knowledge.  It  gives 
broader  and  higher  ideas  of  life  and  its  possibilities. 
Finding  the  basis  of  morals  in  the  constitution  of  mind 
itself,  the  moral  law  has  a  new  significance.  It  is  not 
a  rule  forced  upon  us  by  a  power  foreign  to  ourselves, 
but  is  a  part  of  our  being,  necessary  to  our  welfare 
and  to  our  very  existence.  Enforced  by  the  facts  of 
observation,  as  experience  widens  obedience -becomes  a 
matter  of  intelligent  choice.  Now  the  maxims  of  the 
sages,  and  the  golden  rule  itself,  have  new  meaning. 
They  are  no  longer  commands  to  be  obeyed,  but  condi- 
tions to  be  observed.  They  no  longer  come  as  arbitrary 
mandates,  thwarting  our  desires  and  abridging  our  free- 
dom, but  as  the  expression  and  revelation  of  those  be- 
neficent relations  by  means  of  which  alone  can  we  attain 
completeness  of  living  and  fullness  of  life. 

Social  Relations. — The  intelligence  specially  de- 
manded as  a  guide  to  moral  action  is  in  regard  to  social 
relations.  We  need  to  know  what  will  conduce  to  hu- 
man welfare,  before  we  can  decide  what  course  to  pur- 
sue as  far  as  others  are  concerned.  Knowing  that  with 
the  purest  of  motives  we  are  liable  to  make  serious  mis- 
takes unless  we  possess  this  antecedent  knowledge,  the 
study  of  sociology  becomes  a  matter  of  necessity.  Teach- 
ers who  have  made  themselves  familiar  with  the  sub- 
ject will  have  no  difficulty  in  interesting  the  pupils 
upon  the  questions  involved.  Perhaps  at  first  short 
general  exercises,  once  or  twice  a  week,  would  be  suffi- 
cient.    In  these  exercises  the  various  social  problems 


MORAL   CULTURE.  279 

should  be  clearly  presented,  leading  the  pupils  to  be- 
stow as  much  thought  upon  them  as  possible ;  then  they 
should  be  familiarly  discussed,  the  pupils  deciding  them 
according  to  moral  principles. 

The  advantages  gained  by  such  a  course  are  many. 
A  new  field  of  thought  is  opened  to  the  pupil  outside 
the  ordinary  routine  of  the  schoolroom ;  the  reasoning 
powers  are  taxed  to  see  all  the  relations  involved,  and 
to  place  all  the  facts  in  definite  order ;  the  judgment  is 
trained  in  making  decisions  in  accordance  with  well- 
settled  principles  ;  and  the  moral  powers  are  awakened 
by  the  necessity  of  measuring  all  actions  by  the  stand- 
ard of  duty,  and  of  considering  all  questions  from  the 
moral  point  of  view. 

The  Family. — At  the  basis  of  the  whole  social  su- 
perstructure are  the  family  relations.  How  shall  duties, 
conjugal,  parental,  filial,  and  fraternal,  be  adjusted,  so 
that  in  'all  family  concerns  there  shall  be  the  least 
waste  of  effort,  an  equable  division  of  labor  and  cares, 
the  least  restriction  of  individual  liberty,  the  most  scru- 
pulous care  for  individual  rights,  the  greatest  desire  to 
be  of  service  one  to  another,  the  most  careful  and  gen- 
erous nurture  for  children,  and  the  highest  and  best 
opportunity  for  the  development  of  a  strong  and  noble 
character?  The  general  moral  law  affords  the  key  for 
the  perfect  solution  of  these  questions;  but  the  law 
needs  be  analyzed  and  specifically  applied,  to  the  end 
that  the  spirit  of  the  law  shall  permeate  the  whole  be- 
ing, and  moral  habits  be  made  deep  and  lasting.  We 
would  say  in  passing  that  a  careful  study  in  this  direc- 
tion will  doubtless  reveal  the  fact  that  hitherto  in  the 
World  too  much  relative  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the 


280  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

duties  of  children  to  their  parents,  while  too  little  at- 
tention has  been  given  to  the  duties  of  parents  to  their 
children  ;  and  this  for  the  reason  that  books  upon  duty 
have  been  written  by  parents,  and  the  children's  side 
of  the  question  has  not  been  properly  represented. 

General  Society. — Next  above  the  family  come  the 
interests  of  neighborhoods  and  general  society.  "What 
are  the  relations  that  exist  between  us  and  our  fellows 
in  the  same  community,  and  what  obligations  rest  upon 
us  in  consequence  of  these  relations  ?  "Why  should  we 
tell  the  truth,  be  honest  in  our  dealings,  keep  our  en- 
gagements, and  fulfill  our  contracts  ?  The  examination 
of  this  subject  brings  in  all  the  questions  relating  to 
buyer  and  seller,  employer  and  employe,  and  laborer 
and  capitalist.  With  the  development  of  the  moral 
nature  and  intelligence  in  these  directions,  the  grinding 
oppression  of  the  laborer  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  bru- 
tal revolt  of  the  laborer  on  the  other,  would  alike  be 
impossible.  It  would  be  seen  that  the  welfare  of  each 
is  bound  up  in  the  welfare  of  all,  and  that  to  seek  per- 
sonal ends  regardless  of  public  good  is  to  array  against 
us  the  moral  forces  of  the  world.  This  subject  covers 
the  same  field  as  law ;  and  so  far  as  law  is  synonymous 
with  justice,  it  is  but  another  expression  for  morality. 
Indeed,  the  whole  warrant  of  law  is  found  in  moral  re- 
lations, and  the  law  is  of  benefit  to  man  just  so  far  as 
it  embodies  moral  principles. 

Civil  Government. — The  social  organization  that 
takes  the  form  of  government  represents  one  phase  of 
human  relations,  and  hence  lies  strictly  within  the  field 
of  morality.  It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  legisla- 
tion has  no  right  to  touch  moral  subjects,  but  from  the 


MORAL   CULTURE.  281 

definition  of  morals  we  see  that  it  can  deal  with  no 
other.  The  just  powers  of  government  being  derived 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed,  governmental  duty 
must  coincide  with  personal  duty  as  far  as  it  goes,  and 
must  have  for  its  objects  the  protection  of  rights  and 
the  performance  of  service.  A  knowledge  of  the  rela- 
tions of  government  to  community,  of  the  powers  and 
duties  of  civil  rulers,  of  the  limits  of  governmental 
action,  and  of  the  tests  to  be  applied  to  statutes  to  de- 
cide upon  their  validity,  must  be  antecedent  to  intelli- 
gent moral  action  in  regard  to  these  questions.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a  nullification  of  just  laws,  and  a  revolt 
from  necessary  restraint,  produce  anarchy,  which  is  the 
negation  of  morality  ;  while  submission  to  unjust  statutes 
subverts  liberty  and  prevents  moral  development.  All 
governmental  work  must  be  judged  by  moral  standard-. 

Practical  Morality. — The  mind  having  become  en- 
lightened in  regard  to  social  relations,  the  moral  law, 
which  was  objectively  developed,  may  now  be  subjec- 
tively applied,  and  taken  as  a  guide  to  future  conduct 
and  in  new  experiences.  Actions  in  particular  cases 
need  no  longer  be  tentative,  but  they  may  be  deliber- 
ately taken  in  the  full  assurance  of  beneficent  result. 
Dependence  upon  the  moral  law  may  be  made  with  the 
same  assurance  as  upon  gravitation. 

Applications  in  School.  —  In  school  the  teacher 
should  give  to  the  moral  law  a  wide  and  varied  appli- 
cation to  as  many  of  the  occurrences  of  daily  life  as  pos- 
sible, to  accustom  the  pupils  to  examine  the  moral  bear- 
ing of  all  their  acts.  What  moral  principles  are  involved 
in  cleanliness  of  person  and  clothing,  and  attention  to 
neatness  and  order  in  the  room  ?     Is  there  anything 


282  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

immoral  in  bringing  dirt  on  tlie  feet  into  the  school- 
room or  into  the  sitting-room  at  home  ?  or  in  neglect- 
ing to  put  things  in  their  proper  places  ?  or  in  careless- 
ly breaking  and  destroying  things  ?  What  has  morality 
to  say  in  regard  to  interruptions  of  school  order?  to 
play  in  study  hours  ?  to  inattention  ?  to  neglect  of 
study  ?  to  waste  of  time  ? 

The  scope  of  the  discussion  may  be  widened  by  the 
introduction  of  questions  like  the  following :  Are  amuse- 
ments necessary,  and  in  accordance  with  the  moral  law  ? 
"What  of  dancing,  ball-playing,  card-playing,  and  other 
games?  How  much  of  our  likings  or  dislikings  of 
these  amusements  is  the  result  of  educational  bias,  and 
how  much  do  they  depend  upon  moral  considerations  ? 

What  has  morality  to  say  in  regard  to  lotteries,  gam- 
bling, and  horse-racing  ?  to  drinking  intoxicating  liquor, 
and  to  making  and  selling  the  same  ?  To  the  use  of  to- 
bacco, to  overreaching  in  trade,  to  adulterations,  to  con- 
cealing defects  in  articles  sold  ? 

What  obligations  rest  upon  every  one  to  earn  his 
own  living  ?  Why  should  he  not  live  upon  the  earnings 
of  another  ?  Why  should  he  be  economical  in  expen- 
diture ?  What  incentives  are  there  to  thrift,  and  fore- 
thought for  the  future  ?  What  duty  rests  upon  youth 
and  maturity  in  regard  to  old  age  ? 

The  solution  of  these  questions  cannot  be  obtained 
from  a  book,  nor  can  they  be  dogmatically  stated  by  the 
teacher.  The  value  of  these  exercises  depends  upon  their 
full  and  free  discussion  in  class,  the  collection  of  facts 
made  by  the  pupils  bearing  upon  each  case,  the  infer- 
ences derived  from  such  facts,  and  the  detection  of  fal- 
lacies of  statement  and  inference.     The  teacher's  work 


MORAL   CULTURE.  283 

is  principally  directive,  and  he  should  avoid  giving  de- 
cisions with  the  air  of  authority,  for  the  good  to  the 
pupils  comes  from  the  thought  elicited,  rather  than 
from  the  conclusions  stated. 

Results  of  Moral  Training. — The  outcome  of  this 
moral  training  in  homes  and  in  schools  will  be  indi- 
vidual lives  enriched,  ennobled,  and  exalted  ;  selfishness 
duly  controlled,  and  motive  based  upon  considerations 
of  human  welfare ;  intelligence  informing  in  regard  to 
relations  and  obligations,  and  guiding  to  beneficent  re- 
sults ;  homes  in  which  the  gratification  of  personal  de- 
sires is  always  subordinated  to  the  general  good;  com- 
munities where  human  rights  are  sacred,  and  the  patent 
of  nobility  is  "service  to  humanity;"  States,  founded 
upon  individual  purity,  throwing  their  mantle  of  pro- 
tection around  the  humblest  and  weakest,  furnishing 
opportunity  for  the  most  complete  development  of  all, 
and  establishing  public  justice  upon  the  sure  foundation 
of  private  character ;  and  the  final  realization  of  the 
prediction  upon  the  advent  of  the  great  Teacher :  "  Peace 
on  earth  and  good-will  to  men." 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GENERAL    COURSE    OF  STUDY. 

Preliminary. — For  the  purpose  of  a  thorough  ex- 
amination and  illustration  of  the  subject,  a  course  of 
study  has  been  prepared  of  graded  schools,  where  there 
is  an  opportunity  for  the  complete  development  of  an 
educational  system.  The  course  comprises  four  depart- 
ments of  three  grades  each,  requiring  on  an  average 
twelve  years'  study.  The  school-year  is  divided  into 
three  nearly  equal  parts,  conforming  to  the  general  cus- 
tom in  this  respect.  In  those  schools  where  a  division 
into  two  or  four  terms  is  adopted,  the  changes  needed 
will  refer  only  to  the  details  of  the  work  of  each  grade, 
and  can  easily  be  made  by  the  teacher. 

Following  the  general  detailed  course  will  be  found 
suggestions  in  regard  to  the  course  adajsted  to  ungraded 
and  country  schools,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  methods 
to  be  pursued  to  remedy  the  acknowledged  defects  of 
the  ungraded  system. 

Principles  taken  as  a  Basis.  —  In  preparing  this 
course,  the  following  principles,  exemplified  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters,  have  served  as  a  guide  in  the  selection 
and  order  of  the  topics  : 

First :  That  the  objects  of  education  are  twofold : 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         285 

the  full  development  of  all  the  powers  and  faculties, 
and  the  acquisition  of  such  knowledge  as  shall  be  of  the 
greatest  worth  in  the  ordinary  vocations  and  in  the  dis- 
charge of  daily  duties. 

Second :  That  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind  should  be 
cultivated  in  every  department  of  school-work,  in  the 
exact  order  of  the  growth  and  relative  activity  of  each 
faculty. 

Third :  That  the  perceptive  faculties  are  the  most 
active  in  childhood,  and  that  perceptive  knowledge 
should  be  made  the  basis  of  all  primary  school-work. 

Fourth  :  That  the  "  object  lessons  "  used  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  perceptive  faculties  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that,  by  progressive  steps,  they  lead  directly  into 
the  sciences. 

Fifth  :  That  the  studies  of  each  grade  should  be  so 
coordinated  that  each  one  shall  be  complementary  of 
the  others,  promoting  harmony  of  development  and  in- 
tensity of  impression. 

Sixth  :  That  reason  and  judgment,  or  the  reflective 
faculties  of  the  mind,  are  best  developed  by  inferences 
derived  from  a  wide  basis  of  facts  obtained  through 
perception;  and  that  the  wider  and  more  thorough  the 
perceptive  training,  the  more  important  and  valuable 
will  be  the  reflective  results. 

Seventh:  That  the  sciences  are  best  taught  in  the 
order  of  their  discovery,  objects  coming  before  general- 
izations, and  facts  before  principles;  and  that  the  order 
best  adapted  for  understanding  the  sciences  is  the  best 
possible  for  the  promotion  of  human  development. 

Eighth  :  That  those  studies  which  most  enter  into 
the  daily  thoughts  and  occupations  of  men,  and  which 


286  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

serve  as  a  guide  to  right  conduct  in  all  ordinary  affairs, 
are  the  studies  which  best  promote  mental  discipline ; 
and,  conversely,  those  studies  which  are  of  the  least 
practical  use,  in  the  widest  acceptance  of  the  term,  are 
of  the  least  value  in  mental  discipline. 

Ninth  :  That  natural  and  invariable  relations  exist 
between  the  different  departments  of  thought,  by  which 
one  is  subordinate  to  another ;  and  this  order  of  de- 
pendence determines  the  time  and  the  manner  of  the 
introduction  of  each  into  the  school-course. 

Tenth :  That  the  course  of  study  for  general  devel- 
opment is  substantially  the  same  for  all  pupils,  irre- 
spective of  their  future  work  or  field  of  activity ;  and 
that  changes  for  professional  purposes  should  be  made 
only  in  the  advanced  grades. 

Eleventh :  That  the  studies  of  each  grade  should  be 
exactly  adapted  to  the  development  of  the  pupils  of 
that  grade,  so  that  changes  or  omissions,  except  within 
a  limited  range,  are  inadmissible. 

Twelfth :  That  the  aggregate  of  all  the  studies  pur- 
sued in  the  school  should  serve  as  an  introduction  into 
every  department  of  thought,  and  should  lead  finally 
into  every  field  of  industry. 

General  Arrangement. — In  the  general  arrange- 
ment, five  lines  of  study  are  made  to  extend  throughout 
the  course,  two  principal,  and  three  subordinate.  Of 
the  principal  lines  the  natural  sciences,  teaching  of  the 
outward  world,  occupy  the  first  place,  as  furnishing  the 
mind  with  material  for  observation  and  those  sequences 
of  phenomena  out  of  which  all  ideas  of  logical  order 
had  their  origin. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         287 

Philosophy,  or  the  Humanities,  treating  of  man  and 
his  works,  forms  the  complement  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences, and  furnishes  hoth  the  materials  of  thought  and 
the  field  in  which  the  highest  order  of  thinking  can  he 
hest  exercised. 

The  subordinate  lines  are  language,  valued  as  it  em- 
balms and  expresses  the  thoughts  of  the  natural  sciences, 
and  philosophy  ;  mathematics,  as  it  weighs  and  measures 
science ;  and  aesthetics,  as  it  shows  proportion,  symme- 
try, and  harmony  in  science,  and  culminates  in  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  beautiful. 

The  Natural  Sciences. — These  make  man  acquainted 
with  his  environment,  and  the  conditions  which  he  must 
observe  for  the  preservation  of  Ins  existence.  They 
furnish  him  with  that  practical  knowledge  which  lies  at 
the  foundation  of  all  productive  industry. 

The  materials  for  the  study  of  these  sciences  arc 
found  everywhere  ;  and  their  pursuit  leads  to  habits  of 
close  and  accurate  observation,  and  to  the  investigation 
of  everything  that  comes  within  the  cognizance  of  the 
senses.  Study  in  this  direction  also  leads  the  mind  to 
look  beyond  the  object  to  the  thought  which  the  object 
represents,  and  through  phenomena  to  the  intelligence 
and  laws  which  control  them. 

Course  in  Science. — In  arranging  the  topics  in  the 
scientific  course  two  things  are  to  be  considered  :  first, 
the  succession  of  the  sciences  themselves;  and,  second, 
the  succession  of  the  topics  in  each  science. 

In  the  succession  of  the  sciences  it  is  obvious  that 
mineralogy,  botany,  and  zoology,  that  treat  of  the  ob- 
jects of  the  inorganic  and  organic  world,  should  receive 
the  first  attention.    The  order  of  precedence  of  the  three 


288  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

is  to  be  determined  by  relative  simplicity,  by  the  ease 
•with  which  materials  of  study  can  be  obtained,  and  by 
the  interest  which  may  be  excited. 

Next  after  these  studies,  which  examine  matter  it- 
self, come  physics  and  chemistry,  treating  of  the  forces 
which  control  matter  in  the  mass  and  in  atoms ;  and 
lastly,  geology  and  astronomy,  which  give  generaliza- 
tions based  upon  all  that  has  preceded  them. 

Geology,  without  chemistry  to  show  the  composition 
of  the  rocks,  and  without  botany  and  zoology  to  inter- 
pret the  meaning  of  the  embalmed  remains  of  organic 
life  which  the  rocks  contain,  is  simply  conjecture  of  no 
scientific  value ; .  and  astronomy,  without  the  laws  and 
principles  derived  from  physics,  is  an  incomprehensible 
maze. 

In  the  primary  classes,  only  the  most  obvious  of  the 
objective  qualities  or  facts  are  first  presented ;  farther 
along  a  more  thorough  examination  is  given,  and  gen- 
eral classifications  are  made. 

As  the  sciences  are  so  interwoven  that  the  elements 
of  one  are  needed  for  the  higher  investigations  of  an- 
other, all  the  elementary  sciences  receive  this  objective 
treatment  before  any  of  them  is  completed. 

In  the  more  advanced  courses  each  science  is  treated 
again  upon  successively  higher  planes,  leading  to  more 
minute  investigations  and  to  broader  generalizations. 

Philosophy,  or  the  Humanities,  treats  of  man  as  an 
intelligent  and  moral  being,  and  of  the  work  which  he 
has  accomplished.  It  turns  the  attention  from  an  ob- 
servation of  the  outward  world  to  the  study  of  mind 
and  its  products.  It  makes  the  student  familiar  with 
mental  operations,  and  leads  him  to  a  consideration  of 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  289 

the  laws  which  govern  the  relations  of  men  in  all  the 
different  phases  of  society. 

Coarse  in  Philosophy. — In  arranging  the  topics  of 
the  philosophic  course  the  same  general  order  has  been 
observed  as  in  the  scientific  course.  The  topics  them- 
selves are  arranged  according  to  their  relative  simplicity 
and  dependence  ;  and  each  has  its  several  presentations 
on  successively  higher  planes. 

Geography. — The  first  steps  leading  toward  philoso- 
phy are  taken  in  the  primary  rooms,  in  the  lessons  in 
miscellaneous  objects,  and  in  reading.  The  lessons  in 
place  gradually  lead  into  geography,  which  treats  of 
Nature  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  man  upon  the  other. 
In  its  philosophic  side  it  treats  of  man  as  an  inhabitant 
of  the  earth,  and  of  the  races,  their  divisions  and  dis- 
tribution. It  considers  man  as  a  being  acted  upon  by 
material  forces,  and  as  an  agent  active  in  changing  ma- 
terial conditions;  and  it  furnishes  a  general  description 
of  the  works  of  man  in  his  various  fields  of  activity. 

The  reading  lessons  are  progressive  in  character,  and 
arc  made  to  lead  gradually  into  literature. 

History.  —  Following  geography  is  United  States 
history,  giving  the  facts  concerning  the  past  of  our  own 
country,  and  showing  the  proximate  causes  of  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  our  national  affairs.  From  these  may 
be  inferred  general  laws  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  out- 
ward circumstances,  and  of  human  conduct  in  shaping 
national  destiny.  Farther  along  in  the  course,  general 
history  receives  the  same  kind  of  attention,  and  leads  to 
similar  generalizations  from  a  wider  field  of  thought 
and  action. 

Literature,  as  a  part  of  human  history,  and  as  a  rc- 
13 


290         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

suit  of  human  effort,  is  introduced  objectively  in  the 
senior  grades,  and  receives  a  more  thorough  treatment 
in  the  academic  department  under  the  heads  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  and  General  Literature. 

Civil  Government,  the  next  topic,  treats  of  the  or- 
ganization of  men  into  communities  and  states ;  of  the 
social  laws  which  control  such  organizations ;  and  of 
the  different  forms  of  government  which  have  grown 
up  under  different  conditions.  By  the  study  of  this 
branch  is  obtained  the  special  knowledge  necessary  to 
the  intelligent  discharge  of  the  duties  of  citizenship). 
Farther  along,  aided  by  moral  philosophy,  the  same 
subject  is  treated  under  the  head  of  Political  Economy ; 
and  from  the  history  and  condition  of  society  are  de- 
rived those  general  laws  which  must  guide  conduct  in 
the  promotion  of  human  welfare. 

Mental  Philosophy  is  the  next  general  topic,  turn- 
ing the  attention  from  the  object  of  thought  to  thought 
itself,  and  the  conditions  of  its  vigorous  and  healthful 
action.  It  analyzes  the  mental  powers,  and  shows  the 
nature  and  limitations  of  each  ;  it  traces  thought  along 
all  its  various  lines,  and  shows  how  it  must  proceed  to 
reach  correct  conclusions ;  it  gives  the  order  of  devel- 
opment of  the  faculties,  and  shows  the  kind  of  aliment 
necessary  to  each  stage  of  mental  growth.  In  logic, 
higher  up  in  the  course,  the  same  subject  is  again  con- 
sidered, showing  the  special  operations  of  the  mind  in 
inductive  and  deductive  reasoning. 

In  moral  philosophy  this  introspective  work  is  en- 
larged, and  reaches  out  from  the  mind  to  embrace  all 
the  relations  which  the  mind  sustains  to  other  minds. 
It  shows  how  rights  grow  out  of  necessities,  duties  out 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         291 

of  rights,  and  how  the  promotion  of  human  welfare 
becomes  the  standard  by  which  the  morality  and  intrin- 
sic worth  of  every  act  are  to  be  judged. 

Language  furnishes  the  means  by  which  the  thoughts 
of  science  and  philosophy  are  preserved  and  expressed. 
Although  subordinate  to  thought,  it  is  an  inseparable 
accompaniment  to  it ;  and,  in  the  study  of  every  branch 
of  knowledge,  language  demands  and  receives  nearly 
or  quite  one-half  of  the  time  and  attention. 

The  objective  points  in  the  study  of  language  are 
accuracy  and  facility  in  the  expression  of  thought, 
both  in  oral  and  written  expression.  This  mastery  over 
language,  so  that  every  thought  may  be  expressed  in 
the  best  words,  arranged  in  well-constructed  sentences, 
is  at  once  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  human 
power,  and  the  most  accurate  test  of  the  possession  of 
knowledge  itself. 

Skill  in  the  use  of  language,  in  both  speaking  and 
writing,  comes  from  the  practice  which  involves  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  thought  to  be  expressed,  and  a 
continual  effort  to  express  it  in  the  most  effective  man- 
ner. Every  lesson  and  every  school  exercise  should  be 
made  to  contribute  to  the  pupil's  power  to  use  language. 
The  teacher's  work  is  to  guide  the  pupil  in  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words,  and  to  point  out  inaccura- 
cies of  expression  for  him  to  correct. 

Language  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought  should 
be  taught  by  its  use,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  incident- 
ally, while  primary  attention  is  fixed  upon  the  thoughts 
to  be  expressed.  Language  in  its  scientific  arrange- 
ment and  history  becomes  a  branch  of  philosophy,  and 
hence  belongs  to  the  advanced  course  of  instruction. 


292  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Course  in  Language. — The  course  of  language  has 
been  arranged  to  include  daily  exercises,  and  a  most 
thorough  drill  in  the  use  of  language,  both  in  speaking 
and  writing ;  the  technical  details  of  reading,  spell- 
ing, and  penmanship ;  the  etymology  of  words ;  and 
the  laws  of  construction  as  embodied  in  the  rules  of 
syntax. 

Use  in  Speaking. — The  use  of  language  in  speak- 
ing is  introduced  into  the  primary  schools  by  means  of 
questions  which  demand  complete  sentences  for  answer ; 
of  lessons  which  require  verbal  descriptions  ;  of  stories 
told  by  teachers  and  reproduced  by  pupils  ;  and  of  ori- 
ginal incidents  related  by  pupils.  The  vocabulary  of 
the  pupil  is  enlarged  by  giving  a  new  word  to  express 
every  new  idea  developed,  so  that  thought  and  expres- 
sion go  hand  in  hand.  These  oral  exercises  are  con- 
tinued for  several  years,  and  gradually  give  place  to 
topical  recitations,  and  in  that  form  are  continued 
throughout  the  entire  school  course. 

Recitation  of  the  memorized  words  of  a  text-hook  is 
never  permitted. 

Use  in  Writing. — The  use  of  language  in  writing 
is  introduced  by  exercises  directly  from  objects,  in  which 
but  a  single  fact  is  stated  in  a  complete  sentence,  then 
two  or  more  facts,  until  the  whole  description  is  given 
in  connected  discourse.  These  descriptions  are  fol- 
lowed by  written  narrations  of  incidents,  by  the  repro- 
duction of  preceding  lessons,  and  by  writing  out  at  least 
one  of  the  topics  of  the  regular  school  lessons  daily. 

In  the  more  advanced  classes  these  written  exercises 
consist  of  the  results  of  original  investigations  in  nat- 
ural history,  of   historical  and   philosophical  sketches 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  293 

derived  from  the  study  of  books,  and,  finally,  of  essays, 
embodying  the  results  of  reflection  and  thought. 

In  all  the  special  language-lessons  the  pupils  are 
taught,  first  to  collect  all  the  facts  bearing  upon  a  sub- 
ject ;  second,  to  arrange  them  in  logical  order ;  and 
third,  to  express  them  in  well-considered  discourse. 

The  topics  which  are  made  the  themes  of  the  for- 
mal written  lessons  in  language  are  those  closely  con- 
nected with  some  branch  studied  at  the  time,  or  some- 
thing needed  for  subsequent  work,  or  something  that 
rounds  out  or  complements  the  studies  already  pursued 
Each  of  these  themes  is  thoroughly  discussed  in  the 
class  as  a  preliminary  to  writing;  so  that  the  principle 
is  practically  enforced  that  well-arranged  thought  should 
precede  all  attempts  at  systematic  expression. 

The  written  exercises  upon  these  elementary  topics 
serve  as  a  guide  to  all  subsequent  logical  arrangement  of 
thought ;  show  the  relations  that  exist  between  thoughts 
that  are  usually  presented  in  a  disconnected  and  frag- 
mentary way ;  and  fix  them  in  the  memory  more  per- 
manently by  the  process  of  philosophic  association. 

The  subject  "Present  History"  is  designed  to  make 
the  pupil  intelligent  in  regard  to  the  questions  and 
events  that  most  vitally  affect  society  at  the  present 
time.  The  study  commences  in  his  own  neighborhood, 
extends  to  the  State  and  nation,  and  it  is  finally  made 
to  embrace  all  great  questions  which  are  <>f  national 
importance  in  the  principal  countries  of  the  world. 

Through  several  grades  of  the  intermediate  and 
senior  departments,  the  leading  occupations  of  men  are 
made  the  basis  of  written  exercises.  This  study  Leads 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  several  branches 


294  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

of  industry,  to  their  classification,  and  to  a  considera- 
tion of  their  relative  importance.  In  the  philosophic 
summary  it  is  shown  how  each  has  grown  out  of  human 
needs  and  desires,  and  how  the  peculiar  development 
of  each  has  been  largely  determined  by  outward  condi- 
tions and  circumstances. 

In  the  advanced  course,  after  the  student  has  had 
an  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  the  various 
branches  of  elementary  science  and  of  history,  and  is 
somewhat  conversant  with  the  operations  of  mind,  he 
takes  for  the  subject  of  his  essays  the  principles  and  his- 
torical  development  of  art,  including  architecture,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  music,  and  poetry.  His  attention  is 
lastly  called  to  philosophy,  its  history,  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  different  systems  of  both  ancient  and 
modern  times. 

The  technical  details  of  language,  including  reading, 
spelling,  the  use  of  capitals,  and  punctuation,  are  pro- 
gressively taught  in  exercises  extending  through  the  en- 
tire elementary  course. 

Grammar  and  Rhetoric. — Language,  as  a  science,  is 
treated  in  the  ninth  grade,  at  which  time  pupils  are 
supposed  to  have  arrived  at  a  state  of  intellectual  devel- 
opment sufficient  to  enable  them  to  comprehend  the 
principles  of  grammar.  This  is  followed  by  rhetoric  in 
the  next  grade,  and,  lastly,  by  an  exercise  in  the  analy- 
sis of  words. 

In  the  latter  exercise  the  pupil  is  made  familiar  with 
the  results  of  modern  philological  research  in  regard  to 
the  formation  of  words  and  the  growth  of  language. 
By  the  careful  study  of  his  own  vernacular,  he  obtains 
a  knowledge  of  the  roots  derived  from  all  the  languages 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  095 

which  enter  into  the  English  ;  lie  gets  the  nice  and  dis- 
criminating use  of  words  which  is  usually  sought  in  the 
study  of  a  foreign  language  ;  and  he  acquires  the  power 
of  etymological  analysis  which  will  be  of  great  worth 
to  him  in  practical  life,  and  in  the  continuation  of  lin- 
guistic studies.  A  study  of  this  kind,  while  it  cannot 
take  the  place  of  a  thorough  culture  in  the  classic  lan- 
guages, will  he  found  an  excellent  preparation  for  such 
culture,  and  it  will  be  found  of  much  greater  practical 
value  than  superficial  classic  study. 

Mathematics. — The  mathematical  branches  serve  to 
weigh  and  measure  science.  By  means  of  them  all 
quantitive  relations  become  known.  Though  directly 
derived  from  the  concrete  sciences,  and  subordinate  to 
them,  they  are  indispensable  to  the  complete  mastery  of 
these  sciences  ;  and  throughout  the  entire  school -course 
their  pursuit  should  exactly  keep  pace  with  that  of  the 
sciences. 

The  practice  of  allowing  the  mathematical  studies 
to  monopolize  the  time  devoted  to  study,  or  to  be  pur- 
sued greatly  in  advance  of  the  sciences  in  which  they 
have  their  origin,  or  to  the  development  of  which  their 
chief  value  is  owing,  is  not  encouraged. 

Course  in  Mathematics. — In  the  primary  grades  the 
elements  of  numbers  arc  introduced  by  the  means  of 
objects,  and  the  attention  is  directed  to  simple  combiim- 
tions  until  the  fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic  are 
thoroughly  mastered.  The  exercises  for  practice  in  this 
department  arc  principally  derived  from  work  previous- 
ly done,  and  are  made  to  exemplify  the  lessons  in  other 
subjects  pursued  at  the  same  time. 

Throughout  the  entire  school-course,  the  prineiple  of 


296  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

coordinating  mathematical  laws  and  the  concrete  sci- 
ences by  means  of  practical  examples  is  carried  out  as 
far  as  possible. 

The  arithmetic  drill  derived  from  the  thorough  mas- 
tery of  the  ordinary  practical  arithmetic  is  considered 
sufficient  in  this  direction,  and  the  curiosities  of  num- 
bers so  frequently  exhibited  in  the  so-called  higher  arith- 
metic are  wholly  omitted. 

The  applications  of  numbers  to  practical  problems 
involving  the  reasoning  processes  found  in  our  ordinary 
mental  arithmetics  are  placed  in  the  last  two  terms  of 
the  senior  department,  at  a  time  when  the  pupils  have 
attained  a  development  sufficient  to  perform  the  work 
without  any  unnatural  strain  upon  their  faculties. 

The  practice  of  placing  such  exercises  in  primary 
and  intermediate  grades  is  believed  to  be  pernicious,  in- 
asmuch as  it  appeals  to  faculties  which  are  usually  not 
ripe  for  such  uses  until  a  later  period  ;  it  takes  time 
which  can  be  more  profitably  spent  in  other  directions ; 
and  it  requires  much  more  time  to  master  the  study  than 
would  be  necessary  if  postponed  to  the  proper  period. 

In  the  academic  course,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trig- 
onometry are  thoroughly  pursued  as  far  as  their  funda- 
mental principles  are  concerned,  and  each  step  is  illus- 
trated by  practical  examples  which  serve  to  connect  daily 
experience  with  scientific  results.  The  principles  of 
geometry  and  trigonometry  are  applied  to  practical  sur- 
veying, to  mensuration,  and  to  mechanics  and  astronomy, 
sufficiently  to  illustrate  the  elements  of  these  sciences. 

^Esthetics. — In  a  complete  philosophical  system  of 
education,  the  cultivation  of  the  taste  to  an  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful  and  of  the  activities,  so  that  the  ideas 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  297 

of  beauty  may  be  embodied  in  concrete  forms,  is  con- 
sidered of  equal  importance  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
mental  and  moral  faculties  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
true  and  the  good  respectively.  The  attainment  of  the 
beautiful  is  the  final  outcome  of  all  the  activities  rather 
than  special  development  in  any  given  direction. 

Course  in  ^Esthetics. — ^Esthetic  culture  in  the  di- 
rection of  manners  is  promoted  by  attention  to  general 
politeness,  to  grace  in  attitude,  and  pleasant  tones  in 
speech  ;  to  the  suppression  of  vulgarity  and  coarse  con- 
duct, and  to  the  formation  of  such  habits  as  will  always 
respect  the  personality  of  others. 

^Esthetic  culture  is  also  sought  to  be  promoted  by 
attention  to  neatness  of  person  and  dress,  to  the  form 
and  fitness  of  dress,  and  its  general  adaptation  to  its 
uses  ;  to  color  in  dress,  and  personal  decorations ;  to  the 
care  and  arrangement  of  the  furniture  in  the  school- 
room ;  and  to  the  correspondence  and  harmony  of  all 
the  articles  which  are  essential  to  our  daily  comfort — a 
condition  over  which  we  have  control.  In  this  connec- 
tion the  use  of  flowers,  and  such  other  simple  means  of 
decoration  as  may  be  within  the  reach  of  all,  may  be 
made  efficient  help. 

Literature. — The  same  end  is  also  kept  constantly 
in  view  in  all  purely  literary  studies.  The  pupil  is  so 
directed  as  to  see  the  beauty  of  noble  thought  and  ac- 
tion, and  also  the  beauty  of  the  literary  forms  in  which 
such  thoughts  and  actions  are  embodied  by  poets  and 
the  great  masters  of  literature. 

Drawing. — The  education  of  the  hand,  so  that  it 
may  be  made  to  faithfully  and  rapidly  execute  the  man- 
date of  the  will,  is  considered  one  of  the  most  impor 


298         PRINCIPLES  AND    PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

tant  ends  of  education.  In  the  present  school-course 
this  discipline  of  the  hand  is  sought  by  means  of  exer- 
cises in  penmanship  and  drawing. 

In  penmanship  pupils  are  made  familiar  with  the 
exact  form  and  position  of  every  letter,  and  then  they 
have  sufficient  practice  to  secure  legibility  and  rapidity 
of  execution. 

Drawing  is  valued  as  a  means  of  exactly  expressing 
ideas  in  form,  of  educating  the  eye  and  hand,  and  as  an 
aid  to  the  higher  culture  of  art.  The  drawing-exer- 
cises have  been  arranged  to  correspond  with  the  other 
branches  pursued  at  the  same  time,  so  that  drawing  may 
be  made  an  auxiliary  to  science,  and  the  science  made 
to  stimulate  drawing. 

Pupils  are  taught  to  draw  directly  from  objects,  and 
to  make  such  combinations  of  familiar  forms  as  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  creative  art. 

The  practical  value  of  drawing  is  also  considered, 
and  the  exercises  are  made  to  extend  into  almost  every 
department  of  science  and  industry.  The  discipline 
gained  by  the  practice  of  drawing  is  of  more  use  daily, 
in  almost  every  vocation,  than  that  of  any  other  school- 
exercise.  To  the  teacher  it  is  invaluable  as  a  means  of 
illustrating  nearly  every  lesson  which  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  give. 

Music. — Singing  as  a  branch  of  aesthetic  culture 
should  be  practised  in  every  department  of  the  school. 
In  the  primary  department  the  singing-exercises  should 
consist  of  melodies  that  will  give  pleasure  to  the  pupils ; 
that  will  progressively  cultivate  the  musical  taste ;  that 
will  furnish  the  means  for  appropriate  musical  drill ; 
and  that  will  promote  the  general  harmony  of  the  school- 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         299 

room.  In  the  higher  departments  the  art  of  music 
should  be  continued,  and  the  science  of  music  should 
be  introduced  by  a  series  of  thoroughly  objective  les- 
sons. No  common-school  education  should  be  consid- 
ered complete  unless  it  includes  the  scientific  elements 
of  music,  as  well  as  the  art  of  singing. 

Calisthenics. — The  value  of  calisthenic  exercises  in 
promoting  health  and  intellectual  vigor  has  long  been 
conceded,  but  beyond  this  they  should  be  regarded  as  of 
great  importance  in  their  relations  to  (esthetic  culture. 
By  means  of  the  variety  of  exercises  the  muscles  are 
harmoniously  developed,  and  are  made  to  directly  re- 
spond to  the  mandates  of  the  will.  By  means  of  the 
rhythmic  nature  of  the  exercises  there  results  rhythm 
of  motion,  which  is  a  large  factor  in  grace  both  of  mo- 
tion and  attitude. 


PRIMARY  DEPARTMENT. 

General  Description. — The  studies  of  the  three 
grades  which  constitute  the  primary  department  are 
arranged  as  follows : 

First. — The  exercises  are  all  objective,  training  the 
perceptive  powers,  and  storing  the  mind  with  the  knowl- 
edge most  necessary  for  future  use. 

Second. — As  much  as  possible  the  pupils  an-  required 
to  handle  the  objects  of  study  for  the  purpose  of  bring- 
ing muscular  training  to  the  aid  of  perception,  aud  oi 
making  the  impression  more  deep  and  Lasting. 

Third. — A  great  variety  of  exercises  is  introduced, 


300  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

so  that  attention  is  continually  awakened,  and  the  weari- 
ness resulting  from  monotony  is  avoided. 

In  conducting  each  exercise  the  teacher  should  have 
a  distinct  end  in  view,  and  should  make  such  prepara- 
tion beforehand  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure  this 
end.  Every  lesson  should  be  a  step  in  advance,  and, 
falling  short  in  this  respect,  it  should  be  considered  a 
failure. 

Reading-exercises  may  be  introduced  by  either  the 
word  or  the  sentence  method.  An  idea  or  thought  is 
first  developed ;  and,  after  the  pupil  has  become  inter- 
ested in  it,  the  word  or  the  sentence  expressing  it  may 
be  given.  The  names  and  the  powers  of  the  letters 
should  be  learned  incidentally,  while  the  attention  is 
principally  directed  to  some  item  of  real  knowledge. 

Each  sentence  read  should  be  the  embodiment  of  a 
thought  which  the  pupil  thoroughly  understands,  and 
should  be  delivered  precisely  as  it  should  be  spoken. 
The  practice  of  allowing  the  words  of  a  reading-lesson 
to  be  pronounced  separately  should  never  be  permitted. 
Attention  to  this  matter  will  prevent  the  monotonous 
and  conventional  drawl  in  reading  which  is  often  con- 
sidered inseparable  from  school-work. 

The  spelling-lessons  should  contain  the  words  ordi- 
narily used  by  the  pupils,  and  such  new  words  as  are 
necessary  to  express  the  new  ideas  which  are  developed. 

The  practice  of  learning  words  greatly  in  advance 
of  their  use  is  not  encouraged,  as  it  takes  time  which 
can  be  spent  to  better  advantage  ;  it  turns  the  attention 
from  ideas  to  words ;  it  puts  an  unnatural  strain  upon 
the  retentive  faculties  by  appealing  to  arbitrary  memory 
alone  ;  it  fills  the  mind  with  a  land  of  knowledge  wholly 


GENERAL   COURSE   OF  STUDY.  301 

useless  ;  and  it  becomes  a  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
acquiring  necessary  spelling  in  a  rational  way. 

In  this  department  the  various  studies  are  grouped 
under  the  heads  of  Natural  Science,  Language,  Mathe- 
matics, and  ^Esthetics.  In  the  Natural  Science  group, 
the  studies  are  really  related  object-lessons  leading  into 
the  sciences.  All  that  relates  to  philosophy  or  the  hu- 
manities is  found  connected  with  science  and  language. 

Besides  the  spontaneous  plays  of  the  children,  which 
should  be  permitted  and  encouraged,  regular  exercises 
should  be  introduced  at  the  very  first  and  continued 
daily  throughout  this  department.  These  exercises 
should  take  the  form  of  rhythmic  calisthenic  move- 
ments, set  to  music  or  accompanied  by  counting.  This 
will  be  found  a  pleasant  recreation,  producing  relief  by 
change  from  study  or  recitation.  Besides  the  enjoy- 
ment which  it  gives,  it  will  be  found  valuable  in  sup- 
plementing play  in  the  full  exercise  of  the  muscles,  and 
in  giving  grace  and  flexibility  to  movement,  thus  con- 
tributing to  both  physical  and  {esthetic  culture 

Every  ungraded  school,  and  every  primary  depart- 
ment of  a  graded  school,  should  be  supplied  with  charts 
for  reading-lessons;  blocks  for  building;  inch,  foot,  and 
yard  measures  for  each  pupil  in  the  das-,  and  a  rod- 
measure,  made  of  strong  twine  ;  a  gill,  pint,  quart,  gal- 
lon, and  peck  measure,  and  a  box  of  sand  to  use  with 
them ;  a  balance,  with  the  weights  of  the  several 
denominations  of  avoirdupois,  troy,  and  apothecaries' 
weight ;  a  cubic  foot,  made  up  of  twelve  parts,  each  one 
an  inch  thick  ;  and  a  box  of  forms  containing  the  regular 
geometric  surfaces  and  solids.  These  things  are  all 
essential  to  give  pupils  definite  and  practical  ideas  in 


302         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

regard  to  form  and  extension.  The  whole  outlay 
need  not  exceed  ten  dollars,  and  this  will  be  repaid 
a  hundred-fold  in  the  saving  of  time  effected  by  their 
use. 

FIKST  GRADE. 

First,  or  Autumn  Term. 

natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Leaves,  form,  structure,  names. 
In  plant-lessons  the  teacher  first  calls  attention  to  the 
general  form  of  the  leaf,  and  then  to  its  principal  parts. 
The  names  of  the  parts  are  given,  and  the  pupils  are 
directed  to  apply  these  names  to  the  parts  of  other 
leaves.  The  edges  and  the  venation  of  the  leaves  are 
next  pointed  out.  As  the  different  ideas  in  regard  to 
leaves  are  developed,  the  pupils  are  directed  to  find 
specimens  illustrating  them,  and  the  subject  is  contin- 
ued until  all  the  common  leaves  have  been  examined 
and  described. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Parts  of  the  human  body: 
trunk,  upper  limbs,  lower  limbs,  head,  neck,  hands,  feet, 
eyes,  ears,  nose,  etc.  Hands  and  feet  compared.  The 
dog,  the  cat :  parts  compared. 

Lessons  in  Place. — The  place  and  relative  position 
of  objects  upon  the  table  and  in  the  room.  Repre- 
sentation upon  the  blackboard. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercise. — One  familiar  object  examined  and 
described  each  day,  giving  the  parts,  their  names,  and 
number. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         303 

Reading. — "Words  and  sentences  from  chart  and 
blackboard. 

Spelling. — Names  of  the  letters  introduced  incident- 
ally. 

Writing. — All  the  words  of  the  lesson  printed  upon 
the  slate. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Farm. — Surface  :  kinds  of  surface,  divis- 
ions of  surface  or  faces,  edges,  corners.  The  terms 
point  and  line  developed  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Development  of  the  general  terms 
of  size  :  such  as  large  and  small,  long  and  short,  broad  and 
narrow,  thick  and  thin,  deep  and  shallow,  high  and  low. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Counting :  combination  of 
addition  and  subtraction  to  10,  with  objects. 

^STUETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventive  drawing  introduced  by  the 
use  of  sticks.  Combinations  of  two,  three,  four,  and 
five  lines. 

Singing. — Daily  singing-exercises  by  all  the  pupils 
in  the  room.  The  music  should  consist  of  simple  melo- 
dies that  the  children  can  easily  learn  and  take  pleasure 
in  singing.  Several  tunes  adapted  to  marching  should 
be  learned  and  sung  to  accompany  the  ealisthenic 
exercises. 

Second,  or  "Wester  Term. 

natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — The  dog  and  cat  reviewed. 
The  cow  and  horse   described   and   compared.     The 


304  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

terms  herbivorous  and  carnivorous  distinguished  and 
applied. 

Lessons  in  Color. — The  primary  colors,  red,  yellow, 
and  blue,  developed  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Place. — Direction  developed.  Right 
and  left,  front  and  back,  up  and  down.  Parts  of  the 
room  :  walls,  ceiling,  floor.  Direction  of  these  points. 
Points  of  direction  :  east,  west,  north,  south,  northeast, 
southwest,  northwest,  southeast.  The  terms  cardinal 
and  semi-cardinal  given  and  applied. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects,  their  parts 
and  number  of  parts  continued  daily.  Summary  of 
description  given  by  pupils  in  connected  discourse. 
Lessons  given  by  teachers  reproduced  by  pupils.  En- 
couragement given  to  free  conversation  by  the  pupil. 

Reading. — Words  and  sentences  from  chart  and 
blackboard  continued.     First  Reader  commenced. 

/Spelling. — Spelling  by  copying  the  reading-lesson 
from  the  chart  or  book.  Each  new  word  thoroughly 
learned  when  first  introduced  and  used. 

Writing. — The  words  of  the  reading-lessons  printed 
upon  the  slate. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Lines :  straight  and  curved,  verti- 
cal, horizontal,  and  oblique.   Angles :  right,  acute,  obtuse. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Terms  denoting  size  reviewed. 
Inch  and  foot  measures  introduced  and  practically  used. 
Their  relative  size  discovered  by  the  pupils. 

In  this  exercise  an  inch-measure  should  be  put  into 
the  hands  of  each  pupil  in  the  class.     The  teacher 


GENERAL   COURSE   OF  STUDY.  305 

should  direct  the  pupils  to  look  at  the  measure,  and 
then  put  it  out  of  sight ;  next,  to  tear  from  strips  of 
paper,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  a  piece  as  long  as  the 
measure  ;  then,  to  compare  the  piece  with  the  measure. 
Next,  the  pupil  may  draw  a  line  upon  the  blackboard 
as  long  as  the  measure ;  and  when  he  can  do  this  with 
tolerable  accuracy,  so  that  he  has  a  definite  idea  of  the 
length  of  the  measure,  the  name  inch  may  be  given  to  it. 

By  putting  together  twelve  of  the  inches  the  idea 
of  foot  may  be  developed,  the  name  given,  and  each 
pupil  supplied  with  a  foot  rule.  In  like  manner  the 
ideas  of  a  yard  and  a  rod  may  be  developed  and  the 
names  given.  A  yard  and  a  rod  measure  should  be  given 
the  class,  and  the  pupils  should  be  instructed  in  their 
use  in  practically  measuring  things  in  and  about  the 
school-room. 

LesscHis  in  JSfumbe)\ — Combination  by  multiplication 
and  division  to  10,  with  objects. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventive  drawing  continued,  combina- 
tions of  lines  not  exceeding  ten.  Applications  of  the 
same  number  of  lines,  to  form  the  outline  of  familiar 
objects. 

Singing. — Daily  exercises  in  singing  continued,  new 
tunes  learned. 

Third,  or  Spring  Term. 
natural  science. 
Lessons  in  Plants. — Stems,  branches,  rout- and  hark 
examined  and  described.     Different  kinds  compared  and 
classified. 


306  PRINCIPLES   AND  PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — The  sheep  and  other  domes- 
tic animals  described  and  compared  with  those  studied 
during  the  previous  term.  The  rabbit,  the  squirrel,  and 
the  rat  examined  and  compared.  The  term  rodent  de- 
veloped. 

In  conducting  the  exercise  giving  the  lessons  upon 
animals,  the  animal  itself  should  be  brought  before  the 
class  at  first.  By  a  little  attention  a  cat  or  a  dog  may 
be  procured,  and  perhaps  a  rabbit.  When  animals  can- 
not be  brought  into  the  school-room,  the  pupils  may  be 
directed  to  observe  such  as  they  know,  and  with  the 
others  recourse  may  be  had  to  pictures.  Whenever  a 
lesson  is  given  upon  the  horse,  or  the  cow  and  the  like, 
the  teacher  may  ask  questions  to  be  answered  the  next 
day,  encouraging  the  pupils  to  observe  and  to  describe 
the  results  of  their  observation. 

Lessons  in  Place. — The  positions  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  room  reviewed.  The  place  and  position  of 
objects  in  the  room  given,  and  a  map  of  the  room  and 
its  contents  drawn  upon  the  blackboard. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  continued 
daily.  The  position  and  uses  of  parts  of  objects  de- 
veloped and  described.  Pupils  relate  incidents  which 
they  have  observed.  Stories  related  by  teachers  and 
reproduced  by  pupils. 

Heading. — First  reader  completed.  Special  atten- 
tion given  to  distinctness  of  articulation,  natural  inflec- 
tions, and  pleasant  tones. 

Spelling. — All  new  words  examined  and  spelled 
when  introduced. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         307 

Writing. — Writing  words  on  slate  continued.  Script 
letters  gradually  introduced  in  place  of  the  printed  char- 
acters. Description  of  objects  written  by  giving  a  sin- 
gle fact  first,  and  by  combining  facts  afterward. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Surfaces  reviewed.  Triangles 
developed,  formed,  classified  and  named  :  Right-angled 
triangles,  acute-angled  triangles,  and  obtuse-angled  tri- 
angles. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Inch  and  foot  measures  reviewed  : 
yard  and  rod  measures  developed  and  used  in  actual 
work.  The  methods  of  doing  this  work  are  described 
in  the  lessons  of  last  term.  "With  these  measures  the 
pupils  may  be  instructed  to  find  the  length  of  the 
benches,  table,  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  and  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  schoolroom.  The  actual  per- 
formance of  this  work  will  afford  them  an  agreeable 
occupation,  and  will  serve  to  impress  the  ideas  of  ex- 
tension and  distance  permanently  upon  their  minds. 

Lessons  in  Numbers. — Combinations  of  [lumbers  to 
10  reviewed.     Use  of  figures.     Numbers  written  to  100. 

AESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions  with  straight  lines  continued. 
Angles  developed  in  the  form  lesson  of  the  last  term 
reviewed,  classified,  and  made  the  basis  of  original  com 
binations. 

Singing. — Daily  exercises  in  singing  continued.  It 
is  a  good  practice  to  open  the  school  by  singing,  and  to 
sing  at  any  time  when  the  pupils  appear  weary  and  in- 
disposed to  give  attention  to  what  is  going  on. 


308         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

SECOND   GRADE. 

First,  ok  Autumn  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Garden  vegetables:  Names, 
forms,  uses.  The  parts  of  each  used  for  food  :  Roots, 
as  of  beets  and  onions;  tubers,  as  of  potatoes;  stalks, 
as  of  celery  and  rhubarb  ;  leaves,  as  of  spinach  and  cab- 
bage ;  fruit,  as  of  berries ;  seeds  or  grain,  as  of  corn. 
The  examination  of  all  the  common  garden  vegetables 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  daily  exercise  throughout  the 
term.  The  interest  of  the  pupils  may  be  increased  by 
having  the  real  objects  before  them. 

•  Lessons  in  Animals. — The  hen,  the  turkey,  the 
goose,  the  duck — other  known  birds.  Each  described 
and  compared  with  the  others.  Birds  compared  with 
mammals,  their  likenesses  and  unlikenesses. 

Lessons  in  Place. — Exercises  in  direction  continued 
and  extended.  Actual  measurements  made.  Ideas  of  a 
scale  developed.  Map  of  schoolroom  drawn  to  a  scale  upon 
the  blackboard. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  continued, 
with  special  reference  to  qualities.  Ideas  discovered  by 
the  examination  of  objects,  such  as  odorous,  fragrant, 
pliable,  porous,  fibrous,  brittle,  flexible,  elastic,  and  the 
like.  The  names  of  these  qualities  developed  and  used. 
Stories  reproduced.  Incidents  related.  Mistakes  in  pro- 
nunciation, in  the  use  of  words,  or  in  the  construction  of 
sentences,  criticized  by  teacher  and  corrected  by  pupil. 

Reading. — Second  reader  commenced.     All  lessons 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  309 

should  be  read  with  animation  and  in  natural  tone-. 
The  attention  of  the  pupils  should  be  constantly  di- 
rected to  the  thought  which  the  words  express,  rather 
than  to  the  words  themselves.  Mechanical  reading 
should  never  be  permitted. 

Spelling. — Each  new  word  spelled  as  before.  (  are 
should  be  taken  that  the  spelling  be  correctly  copied 
from  the  outset,  and  that  pupils  never  see  words  mis- 
spelled, so  that  impressions  of  false  orthography  shall 
not  be  made  upon  the  mind. 

Writing. — Descriptions  of  simple  objects,  which  be- 
fore have  been  orally  given,  written  out  completely. 
During  the  first  year  it  is  well  for  the  pupils  to  copy  the 
forms  of  the  printed  character,  so  as  to  impress  the  forms 
more  quickly  upon  their  minds.  In  the  last  term  of  the 
year,  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  Roman  and  script 
letters  represented  side  by  side  upon  a  chart,  or  written 
upon  the  blackboard,  so  that  the  pupils  may  gradually 
adopt  the  latter.  From  the  commencement  of  the  second 
grade  onward,  the  script  letter  alone  should  be  used  in 
writing. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Rectangles  developed,  formed, 
classified  and  named.  Parallelograms,  trapezoids,  and 
trapeziums  developed. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Measures  of  capacity:  gill,  pint, 
quart,  and  gallon  introduced,  with  practical  exercises  in 
measuring  sand  or  some  like  substance.  The  relative 
size  of  the  different  measures  discovered  by  the  pupils. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Addition  and  subtraction  ta- 
bles to  5.  Decimations  to  100.  The  use  of  the  rignfl 
plus,  minus,  and  equality. 


310         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

AESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions  continued.  Triangles  re- 
viewed and  made  the  bases  of  new  combinations.  Rep- 
resentation of  familiar  objects  in  outline  by  means  of 
lines  and  triangles. 

Singing. — Daily  singing  simple  airs  continued. 
Singing  with  calisthenics.     New  tunes  learned. 

Second,  or  Winter  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Review  of  known  mammals. 
Lessons  continued  by  means  of  pictures.  The  lion, 
tiger,  elephant,  zebra,  deer,  bear,  monkey.  General 
classification  of  mammals.  This  instruction  needs  be 
based  upon  what  the  pupil  has  seen  in  known  animals. 
With  the  knowledge  of  a  cat,  derived  from  observation, 
and  by  the  aid  of  pictures,  he  can  be  made  readily  to 
understand  the  form,  size,  and  peculiarities  of  the  lion 
and  tiger. 

Lessons  in  Color. — The  primary  colors  reviewed. 
The  secondary  colors,  green,  orange,  and  violet,  devel- 
oped and  applied.  The  way  in  which  the  secondary 
colors  are  produced.  Besides  the  color  charts  which 
should  be  in  every  school,  the  teacher  should  procure 
the  water-color  paints,  and,  by  mixing  the  primary 
colors,  practically  show  how  the  secondary  colors  are 
made.     The  pupils  should  do  the  same  thing. 

Lessons  in  Place. — The  surroundings  of  the  school- 
room studied  in  regard  to  place  and  relative  position. 
Outside  distances  measured,  and  maps  drawn  to  a  scale 
upon  the  blackboard. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         31 J 
LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  in  regard  to 
qualities  continued.  Ideas  in  regard  to  such  qualities 
as  combustible,  fusible,  inflammable,  transparent,  trans- 
lucent, opaque,  etc.,  discovered  and  applied. 

Reading. — Second  reader  continued.  Attention  given 
to  the  same  points  as  in  the  preceding  term,  with  special 
care  that  the  usual  bad  habits  in  reading  are  not  formed. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  all  new  words  continued. 

Writing. — Descriptions  of  objects  continued  and 
extended.  Exercises  varied  by  incidents  related,  and 
by  stories  reproduced. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Rectilinear  forms  reviewed,  clas- 
sified, and  named.  Polygons  developed  objectively, 
classified,  and  named.  The  pea-work  of  the  Kinder- 
garten can  here  be  introduced  to  advantage. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Measures  of  capacity  continued. 
The  peck,  bushel,  and  barrel  introduced,  with  practical 
applications. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Addition  and  subtraction  ta- 
bles to  10,  with  decimations  to  100.  The  practice  with 
measures  of  capacity  made  the  basis  for  examples  in 
addition  and  subtraction. 

^ESTHETICS. 

Drawing.  —  Inventions  continued.  Rectangles  of 
the  various  kinds  combined.  Outlines  of  familiar  ob- 
jects of  similar  forms  drawn. 

Singing. — Daily  singing  simple  melodies  continued. 
New  tunes  learned. 


312         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 


Third,  or  Spring  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — The  seeds  of  plants :  form, 
methods  of  growth,  uses,  classification.  The  description 
of  seeds  made  the  basis  of  language  lessons. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — The  frog  examined  and  de- 
fined. The  terms  amphibian  and  amphibious  devel- 
oped and  applied.  Fishes  examined  and  described. 
Comparisons  of  parts  with  other  forms  of  animals  pre- 
viously studied. 

Lessons  in  Place. — The  measurement  and  mapping 
of  the  school  surroundings  continued.  The  route  of 
each  pupil  from  home  to  the  school  described  and 
mapped. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  in  regard  to 
qualities  continued.  The  ideas  expressed  by  adhesive 
cohesive,  absorbent,  durable,  compressible,  and  the  like 
developed  and  applied.  Objects  classified  as  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral.  The  reproduction  work  of  the 
pupil  should  be  made  topical  as  far  as  possible. 

Reading. — Second  reader  completed.  Special  drill 
upon  vowel  sounds  and  pure  tones. 

Spelling.  —  All  new  words  introduced  and  used 
spelled  as  before. 

Writing. — Description  of  objects  continued.  The 
lessons  in  animals  and  plants  made  the  basis  of  written 
lessons.  Special  attention  given  to  the  form,  size,  and 
spacing  of  the  letters.  The  use  of  capitals  in  commenc- 
ing sentences. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  313 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Irregular  figures  with  straight 
lines  for  boundaries.  Review  of  previous  work.  Com- 
bination of  form  in  connection  with  drawing-lessons. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Surveyor's  chain  introduced  and 
used.  Its  divisions  and  relations  to  the  measures  pre- 
viously learned,  explained,  and  practically  applied. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Addition  and  subtraction  ta- 
bles completed  and  reviewed.  Exercises  in  addition 
and  subtraction  may  be  based  upon  the  measurements 
made  in  the  lessons  in  size. 

^ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions  with  angles,  triangles,  and 
quadrilaterals.  Figures  reproduced  from  memory.  Fa- 
miliar objects  drawn  in  outline. 

Singing.  —  Daily  exercises  in  singing  continued. 
Special  drill  upon  expression. 

THIRD   GRADE. 
First,  or   Autumn   Term. 

NATURAL   sen :.\<  1:. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — "Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  maize, 
potatoes,  and  other  home  vegetables  used  for  food  ex- 
amined and  described.  Other  useful  and  familiar  plants 
examined  and  described. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Lizards  and  snakes  examined 
and  described.  Large  reptiles  like  the  alligator  and  the 
boa-constrictor  described  by  means  of  pictures — their 
structure  and  habits. 

Geography. — Study  of  village  or  school  district  with 
14 


314         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

maps.  Location  of  streets,  principal  buildings,  and  other 
objects  of  interest.  The  conventional  characters  used  in 
the  construction  of  maps  introduced  and  used. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  continued. 
Objects  classified  as  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous.  Qualities, 
sour,  sweet,  bitter,  saline,  odorous,  aromatic,  etc.,  de- 
veloped and  applied. 

Reading. — Third,  reader  commenced.  Special  atten- 
tion given  to  the  consonant  sounds  and  to  pure  tones. 

Spelling. — Words  of  the  reading-lessons  and  new 
words  spelled  by  sound  and  by  letter.  The  silent  letters 
designated. 

Writing. — At  least  one  exercise  written  out  daily. 
Familiar  topics  discussed  and  afterward  the  ideas  put 
together  and  written  out.  Impromptu  work  introduced. 
Attention  paid  to  the  form  of  the  written  work,  the  use 
of  capitals,  and  the  use  of  the  period. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Farm. — Forms  with  curved  outlines,  the 
circle,  the  oval,  the  ellipse,  etc.,  examined  and  described. 
Subject  developed  in  connection  with  the  drawing-les- 
sons. 

Lessons  in  Weight. — A  balance  used.  The  ounce 
and  pound  weight,  avoirdupois,  introduced,  and  practi- 
cal exercises  given  in  weighing. 

Lessons  in  Nuniber. — The  multiplication-table  con- 
structed to  5.  Practical  examples  in  multiplication  de- 
rived from  the  lessons  in  weight.  The  sign  X  intro- 
duced and  used. 


GENERAL   COURSE   OF  STUDY.  315 

^ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventive  drawing  continued.  Curved 
lines  developed,  classified,  and  used  as  the  basis  of  com- 
bination. Objects  drawn  in  outline.  Figures  repro- 
duced from  memory. 

Singing. — Singing  continued.  New  tunes  learned, 
at  least  two  per  month.    The  musical  scale  introduced. 

Second,  or  "Winter  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Animate. — Birds  reviewed,  and  lessons 
continued  by  means  of  pictures.  The  eagle,  the  parrot, 
the  crane,  the  ostrich,  etc.  Peculiar  structure  of  birds : 
swimmers — waders — scratchers,  etc. 

Lessons  in  Color. — Previous  lessons  reviewed.  The 
tertiary  colors  introduced  and  applied.  "Water-color 
paints  used  and  mixed  by  pupils  under  direction  of 
teacher. 

Geography. — Natural  divisions.  Hills,  mountains, 
valleys,  plains,  brooks,  rivers,  springs,  islands,  peninsu- 
las, isthmuses,  shores  or  banks,  ponds,  lakes,  etc.,  ob- 
jectively presented.  From  the  observation  of  a  hill 
and  a  brook,  the  idea  of  each  of  these  natural  divisions 
may  be  derived,  and  such  observation  should  precede 
all  geographical  work  in  which  these  names  occur.  The 
pupil  can  easily  be  led  to  make  definitions  which  are 
approximately  correct. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Description  of  objects  in  regard  to 
qualities  continued.     Objects  classified  as  natural  and 


316  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

artificial.  Qualities,  soluble,  insoluble,  sonorous,  reflec- 
tive, etc.,  developed  and  applied. 

Heading. — Third  reader  continued.  Miscellaneous 
reading  introduced. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  familiar  words,  and  new 
words  as  fast  as  used,  continued.  The  words  to  be 
copied  accurately  from  books  or  from  the  board,  and  no 
opportunity  offered  for  contracting  habits  of  bad  spelling. 

Writing. — The  practice  of  writing  out  one  lesson 
daily  continued.  Particular  attention  given  to  the  order 
of  the  thoughts  expressed.  Impromptu  work  continued 
and  extended. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Fo7%m. — Geometric  solids  introduced  by 
means  of  objects.  The  sphere,  the  cube,  the  prism,  the 
cylinder,  etc.  Every  school  should  be  supplied  with  a 
set  of  blocks  representing  every  variety  of  geometric 
solid,  so  that  the  pupil  may  become  familiar  with  the 
form,  and  will  be  able  always  to  associate  the  form  with 
the  name.  These  names  should  be  applied  by  the  pupils 
to  objects  in  Nature  and  art  which  resemble  them. 

Lessons  in  Weight. — The  ounce  and  the  pound  re- 
viewed. The  terms  quarter,  hundredweight,  and  ton 
introduced  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Number. — The  multiplication-table  con- 
structed to  10.  Practice  in  multiplication  principally 
derived  from  the  exercises  in  weight. 

^ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Curved  angles  developed.  Inventions 
with  curved  lines  and  angles.  Applications  to  objects 
with  curved  outlines.     [Reproductions  from  memory. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  317 

Singing.  —  Daily   exercises    in   singing    continued. 
New  tunes  learned.     Exercises  in  the  scale  continued. 


Third,  or  Spring  Term. 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants.  —  He  view  of  previous  lessons. 
General  form  of  plants  :  trees — shrubs — herbs.  An  ex- 
amination of  buds,  and  their  gradual  development,  com- 
parison, and  classification.  Leaves,  their  form,  structure, 
and  names. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — General  review  of  previous 
work.  The  name  vertebrate  developed  and  applied. 
The  several  classes  of  vertebrates  —  mammals,  birds, 
reptiles,  and  fishes — compared,  and  lists  made  of  known 
specimens  of  each  class. 

Geography.  —  The  town :  hills  —  valleys  —  ri vers  — 
ponds  —  railroads  —  roads  —  villages.  Neighboring  vil- 
lages which  the  pupils  have  visited,  and  the  routes  to 
them.  Map  of  the  town  constructed  and  studied,  and 
drawn  by  pupils  upon  board  and  slates. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Objects  considered  in  regard  to 
adaptation  of  structure  to  use.  Pencil,  slate,  bunk, 
chair,  desk,  pail,  etc.  Descriptive  and  narrative  work 
continued. 

Reading. — Third  reader  continued.  Oral  elements 
reviewed  and  classified. 

Spelling. — Spelling  familiar  and  uewwordscontinued. 

Writing. — Daily  exercises  in  description,  narration, 
and  reproduction.     Impromptu  work  continued. 


318         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — General  review  and  classification 
of  forms.  The  dimension,  length,  breadth,  and  thick- 
ness developed,  and  the  terms  linear,  superficial,  and 
solid  developed  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Value. — The  different  denominations  of 
United  States  currency  presented  objectively.  United 
States  coin. 

Lessons  in  Numoer. — Multiplication-table  completed 
and  reviewed.  Miscellaneous  exercises  in  multiplica- 
tion, principally  founded  upon  the  denominations  of 
weight  and  measure. 

^ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions  with  curved  lines  continued. 
Applications  of  curved  lines  in  representing  the  outline 
of  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  insects,  etc.  The  drawing-les- 
sons made  a  review  of  previous  lessons  in  natural  his- 
tory. ^ 

Singing. — Daily  singing  continued.  New  tunes 
learned.     Practice  upon  the  scales  continued. 


INTERMEDIATE  DEPARTMENT. 

General  Description.  —  The  course  for  the  three 
grades  of  the  intermediate  department  is  mostly  ob- 
jective, differing  from  that  of  the  primary  department 
in  being  more  extended,  more  minute  in  particulars, 
and  including  topics  which  progressively  treat  more  of 
the  humanities. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         319 

The  language  lessons  are  arranged  so  that  expression 
may  have  the  widest  possible  basis  of  thought,  ami,  by 
the  method  pursued,  the  primary  attention  is  seldom 
turned  from  the  thought  to  the  expression.  The  skill 
in  the  use  of  the  language  comes  from  clearness  of 
thinking  and  practice  in  expression. 

Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the  oral  exercises,  and 
through  them  pupils  are  led  out  into  various  fields  of 
observation  and  investigation.  An  endeavor  is  made 
to  give  every  pupil  the  power  to  clothe  his  thoughts  in 
the  most  effective  possible  language. 

In  reading,  the  monotonous  drill  from  the  reader  is 
broken  up  by  a  great  variety  of  miscellaneous  reading, 
arranged  so  as  to  lead  out  directly  into  the  great  fields 
of  thought.  The  selections  are  such,  also,  as  have  a 
tendency  to  fill  the  mind  with  good  images  and  elevated 
sentiments,  leaving  little  inclination  for  the  perusal  of 
demoralizing  literary  productions. 

The  special  written  exercises  throughout  the  three 
grades  are  based  upon  the  industries — topics  which  af- 
ford valuable  information  ;  which  are  in  a  great  measure 
complementary  to  the  natural  sciences  ;  and  which  afford 
ample  scope  for  the  three  indispensable  steps  in  all 
successful  written  work — collecting,  arranging,  and  ex- 
pressing ideas. 

In  the  sixth  grade,  the  attention  is  turned  gradually 
away  from  matter  to  the  forces  which  control  it,  begin- 
ning the  investigation  of  causes,  which  leads  directly  t«i 
philosophy. 

In  the  general  analysis  of  work  in  this  department, 
the  special  details  of  aesthetic  culture  have  been  omitted, 
not  because  the  culture  itself  should  be  neglected,  but 


320  PRINCIPLES   AND   TRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

because  the  steps  to  be  taken  will  largely  depend  upon 
the  particular  system  adopted. 

Drawing  should  be  practised  daily  throughout  the 
department.  The  objective  points  to  be  secured  are 
manual  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  pencil ;  the  develop- 
ment of  the  observing  powers  by  the  study  and  repre- 
sentation of  real  objects  ;  and  the  culture  of  the  imagina- 
tion by  combining  elements  and  practically  creating  new 
designs.  To  accomplish  these  ends  the  pupil  should  copy 
designs  enough  to  give  him  the  technical  manner  of  rep- 
resenting the  forms  of  Nature  and  art,  reproduce  designs 
from  memory,  draw  from  dictation,  draw  real  objects, 
and  create  combinations  according  to  the  principles  of 
art. 

Music  should  also  constitute  one  of  the  daily  exer- 
cises throughout  the  department.  All  the  pupils  should 
sing  for  a  few  minutes  several  times  a  day.  New  tunes 
to  the  number  of  three  to  six  should  be  learned  each 
term,  and  progressive  exercises  should  be  given  in  the 
art  of  reading  music. 

The  calisthenic  exercises  should  be  continued  several 
times  a  day,  from  five  to  ten  minutes  each  time.  New 
exercises  should  be  given  from  time  to  time,  so  that  the 
interest  may  be  kept  up,  and  so  that  the  muscles  may 
receive  a  varied  training.  In  most  schools  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  ventilation,  and  here  it  will  be  found  ad- 
visable to  have  calisthenic  exercise  at  the  end  of  the 
first  hour  of  each  session,  and  the  recess  at  the  end  of 
the  second  hour,  so  that  the  windows  and  doors  may  be 
opened  once  an  hour,  to  insure  a  full  supply  of  pure  air, 
without  endangering  the  health  of  the  pupils  by  draughts 
of  air. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  321 


FOURTH  GRADE. 

First,    or    Autumn    Term. 

natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Leaves  reviewed  and  classified. 
Methods  of  vegetable  growth  examined  and  described. 
The  terms  evergreen,  deciduous,  exogens,  and  endogens 
developed  and  practically  applied. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Study  of  insects  :  flics — mus- 
quitoes  —  bees  —  beetles,  etc.  —  their  general  form  and 
parts.     The  term  articulates  developed  and  applied. 

Geography.  —  The  weather  or  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere :  hot  and  cold — wet  and  dry — wholesome  and  un- 
wholesome. The  terms  temperature,  moisture,  and  salu- 
brity, as  applied  to  the  atmosphere,  developed.  The 
comprehensive  tenn  climate  also  developed.  The  most 
obvious  conditions  that  affect  climate  objectively  pre- 
sented.    The  winds :  their  general  direction  and  effect. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  JT.v>  raises. — The  lessons  in  plants  and  animals 
and  geography,  topically  arranged  and  recited,  furnish- 
ing the  principal  part  of  matter  for  the  oral  exerci 
In  each  lesson  special  attention  is  given  to  precision  in 
thought,  and  to  clearness  and  facility  of  expression. 

Beading. — Third  reader  continued.  Stories  from 
books  and  papers  selected  and  read  by  pupils  once  or 
twice  a  week.  Special  attention  given  to  the  expression 
of  the  sentiment  or  thought.  Inflection  and  emphasis 
the  results  of  the  proper  delivery  of  the  thought 

Spelling. — All  new  words  used  thoroughly  Learned 


322  PRINCIPLES  AND  PPvACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

when  introduced.     Technical  words  plainly  written  by 
teacher  on  black-board  and  copied  by  pupil. 

Writing. — One  of  the  regular  exercises  written  out 
in  full  each  day,  special  attention  being  given  to  a  full 
description  of  the  subject,  and  the  proper  arrangement 
of  its  several  parts.  The  occupations  of  men  made  the 
basis  of  special  written  exercises.  Farm-work :  grain- 
raising — kinds  of  grain  raised — work  necessary  to  be 
done — plowing — planting — sowing — cultivating — hoe- 
ing— harvesting — processes  of  harvesting  the  different 
crops — gardening — processes — products. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Size. — Square  inch,  square  foot,  square 
yard,  introduced  objectively  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Weight. — Grain,  pennyweight,  ounce, 
pound,  troy  weight,  objectively  presented.  Reductions 
made  the  basis  of  exercises  in  arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. — Division-table  to  5.  Writing  numbers 
and  reading  by  periods.     Review-work. 

Second,  ok  Winter  Teem, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Snails,  muscles,  clams,  oysters, 
etc.,  examined  and  their  parts  compared,  and  compared 
with  animals  previously  studied.  The  term  mollusks 
introduced  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Color. — Previous  lessons  reviewed.  Hues 
explained  and  exemplified.  The  most  common  hues 
named  and  applied  to  familiar  objects. 

Geography. — The    county  :    surface — mountains — • 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         ;\^\\ 

hills — valleys  —  streams — lakes — principal  roads  —  rail- 
roads— villages.  The  county  map  thoroughly  studied 
and  drawn  by  each  pupil. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Topical  recitations  in  the  several 
branches  continued,  and  progressively  made  more  com- 
plete in  form  and  comprehensive  in  matter.  An  orig- 
inal incident,  observed  or  experienced,  related  by  each 
pupil  once  a  week. 

Reading. — Third  reader  continued.  Miscellaneous 
reading  selected  by  pupils  once  or  twice  a  week.  Stories 
of  an  interesting  and  elevating  character  selected  by  the 
teacher  and  read  by  the  class.  Pupils  taught  to  observe 
the  peculiar  manner  of  expression  by  cultivated  people. 

Spelling. — The  spelling-exercises  confined  to  the  in- 
troduction of  new  words  as  they  are  demanded  for  use. 
One  or  two  new  words  should  be  learned  each  day,  so 
that  the  vocabulary  of  the  pupil  may  be  slowly  but 
surely  enlarged.  The  meaning  of  words  should  be  de- 
rived from  the  development  of  the  idea  which  the 
words  express  before  they  are  introduced,  rather  than 
by  formal,  verbal  definitions.  The  teacher  can  deter- 
mine whether  a  pupil  fully  understands  a  word  by  re- 
quiring him  to  use  it  in  the  expression  of  a  thought, 

Writing. — The  practice  of  writing  out  completely 
one  of  the  regular  lessons  of  the  day  continued.  The 
special  study  of  occupations  continued.  Fruit-culture. 
Kinds  of  fruit :  apples — pears — peaches — grapes — cher- 
ries— plums — strawberries  —  raspberries  —  blackbei 
etc  Domestic  animal-  and  their  products:  horses — 
cattle  —  sheep  —  hogs — hens — turkeys  —  geese — ducks, 


324         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

etc. — beef — mutton — pork — poultry — butter — cheese — 
wool.  Some  of  the  most  obvious  conditions  necessary 
in  raising  animals. 

MATnEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — Regular  rectangular  forms  meas- 
ured, and  the  manner  of  finding  contents  made  the  basis 
of  arithmetical  exercises  :  square — rhomb — rhomboid — 
oblong — trapezoid — triangle — hexagon — octagon. 

Lessons  in  Weight.  —  Grains,  scruples,  drachms, 
ounces,  and  pounds,  apothecaries'  weight,  introduced  and 
applied.     Reductions  used  in  arithmetical  exercises. 

Arithmetic.  —  Division-tables  to  10.  Practice  in 
multiplication  and  division  based  principally  upon  ex- 
ercises in  form  and  weight. 


Third,  ok  Spring  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — The  trunk,  bark,  roots,  branches, 
and  leaves  of  trees  examined  in  regard  to  their  uses  and 
relations  to  each  other.  The  flow  of  sap  and  its  uses. 
The  sleep  and  decay  of  plants. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — A  star-fish  examined  and  de- 
scribed. Other  similar  forms  studied  whenever  speci- 
mens can  be  obtained.  The  term  radiates  introduced 
and  exemplified.  General  review  of  animals  and  their 
divisions  into  radiates,  mollusks,  articulates,  and  verte- 
brates. 

Geography. — The  county  continued.  The  towns  all 
located  in  their  order  on  the  map,  and  their  names  and 
relative  position  thoroughly  learned.  Climate  and  pro- 
ductions.    The  people  and  their  occupations.     Officers 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  325 

of  school-district,  township,  village,  city,  and  county, 
and  the  duties  of  each.  The  beginning  of  the  objective 
development  of  civil  government.  Examples:  Who 
elects  officers  ?  What  is  the  duty  of  the  district  trustee 
or  committee?  Of  the  township  or  city  collector  and 
assessor  ?  What  is  the  duty  of  the  constable  or  police- 
man ?  Of  the  justice  of  peace?  What  are  the  county 
officers?  Who  presides  at  the  county  court  I  What  is 
the  use  of  the  court  ?  What  other  officers  belong  to  the 
court?  What  buildings  belong  to  the  county  I  What 
is  the  use  of  each  ? 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Topical  recitations  in  the  seven] 
branches  continued.  An  original  description  of  some 
object  outside  of  the  regular  school-work  given  by  each 
pupil  once  a  week. 

Heading. — Third  reader  completed.  Miscellaneous 
selection  continued.  Special  attention  paid  to  selecting 
reading  exercises  that  contain  matter  interesting  to  the 
pupils,  and  noble  sentiments. 

Spelling. — Exercises  in  the  spelling  of  new  words 
continued.  The  meaning  of  words  to  be  determined 
by  their  use  in  sentences. 

Writing. — One  of  the  regular  exercises  of  the  school 
to  be  written  out  daily.  Study  of  occupations  as  a  basis 
for  written  exercises  continued.  Preparation  of  grain 
and  other  farm  product-  for  food.  Milling:  flour — 
meal — canaille— bran — cracked-wheat-  -oat- meal— fari- 
na— corn-starch,  etc.  Baking:  processes  and  products. 
Meat:  curing  -salting  —  smoking,  etc  Batter  and 
cheese:    process    of    manufacture.       Condensed     milk. 


326  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

Fruit,  its  cure  and  preservation:  drying — canning  — 
pickling — preserving. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Form. — The  measurement  of  rectilinear 
forms  continued.  The  denominations  of  surveyors' 
square  measure  presented,  exemplified,  and  applied  to 
practical  examples. 

Lessons  in  Yalue. — The  denominations  of  English 
money  presented  objectively  and  exemplified.  Reduc- 
tions made  the  basis  of  arithmetical  practice: 

Arithmetic. — Multiplication  and  division  tables  re- 
viewed. Notation  and  numeration  reviewed  and  ex- 
tended. 

FIFTH  GEADE. 

First,   or  Autumn   Term. 

natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Trees :  maple — beech — birch — 
cherry — sycamore — oak — elm — ash — hemlock — poplar 
— pine — spruce,  etc.  Characteristic  forms  of  trees. 
Classification :  forest-trees  —  fruit-trees  —  shade-trees  — 
ornamental  trees — trees  valuable  for  timber,  etc.  The 
terms  indigenous  and  exotic  developed  and  applied. 

Lessons  in  Animals. — Food  of  animals.  Kinds  of 
food,  how  obtained.  Food  most  abundant  in  different 
climates.     Adaptation  of  animals  to  climate  and  food. 

Geography. — The  State,  boundaries,  surface,  hills, 
mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  climate,  productions,  animals. 
Outline  of  the  State  drawn  by  pupils  upon  black-board 
and  paper  to  a  definite  scale.  Exercise  in  lengths  of 
different  boundary-lines,  and  in  distance,  from  one  point 


GENERAL  COURSE   OF  STUDY.  827 

to  another,  across  the  State  in  different  directions.  All 
the  natural  divisions  filled  in  by  the  pupils.  Questions 
and  study  from  the  map  made.  Xo  other  work  in 
geography  can  be  made  so  useful  as  that  of  map-draw- 
ing. It  gives  to  the  mind  definite  images,  and  tends  to 
fix  the  relative  location  of  places  as  no  other  work  can. 
The  crude  outline  first  drawn  should  be  succeeded  by 
nice  and  accurate  work. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Topical  exercises  in  the  various 
branches  continued.  Some  plant  in  the  forest,  or  some 
insect,  observed  and  described  by  each  pupil  once  a  week. 

Heading. — Fourth  reader  commenced.  Short  his- 
torical and  biographical  sketches  read  by  pupils.  The 
subjects  of  each  fully  developed  by  teacher,  by  the  use 
of  appropriate  questions  and  explanations.  Poetic  se- 
lections made  by  pupils  and  read  in  class. 

Spelling. — Exercises  in  spelling  principally  confined 
to  the  new  words  necessary  to  be  learned  in  connection 
with  the  several  branches.  Development  from  practice 
of  the  law  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  final  - . 

W/'iting. — One  regular  exercise  to  be  written  out 
daily.  Study  of  occupations  as  a  basis  of  written  i 
cises  continued.  Fabrics  from  which  clothing  is  manu- 
factured. Cotton,  linen,  woolen,  and  silk.  Cotton — 
kinds — how  cultivated ;  picking,  ginning,  baling.  Hemp 
and  flax — how  cultivated  ;  harvesting,  rotting,  breaking, 
swingling,  hackling.  AVool — how  produced  and  pre- 
pared. Silk — mulberry- trees,  silk-worms,  manner  of 
feeding,  cocoons,  how  treated,  winding  the  thread. 

Penmanship. — Penmanship,  as  a  separate  branch  of 


328         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

instruction,  may  be  introduced  into  this  grade.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time  the  formation  of  letters  and  the  gen- 
eral style  of  penmanship  have  been  acquired  incidental- 
ly, the  teacher  continually  criticising  faulty  work.  In 
schools  with  a  limited  number  in  attendance  this  prac- 
tice may  be  sufficient,  as  the  teacher  will  have  time 
to  give  attention  to  the  writing  of  every  pupil  sufficient- 
ly to  insure  legibility  and  grace,  the  two  ends  to  be 
sought.  But  in  large  schools  distinctive  penmanship 
exercises  are  required,  and  the  first  book  might  with 
profit  be  commenced  at  this  term,  and  then  the  books 
to  succeed  each  other,  and  the  exercise  continued  ac- 
cording to  the  progress  made. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Extension. — The  denominations  of  long 
measure  completed  :  furlong — mile — league,  etc.  Ta- 
bles constructed  by  pupils.  Reductions  made  the  basis 
of  arithmetical  exercises. 

Arithmetic. — Special  practice  in  long  division.  Re- 
view of  the  fundamental  rules,  with  practical  applica- 
tions. 

Second,  or  Winter  Term, 
natural  science. 

Physiology. — Digestion.  The  digestive  apparatus  : 
the  teeth — incisors — cuspids — molars — hygiene  of  the 
teeth — the  oesophagus — the  stomach — the  stomachs  of 
ruminants — action  of  the  stomach — changes  which  food 
undergoes  in  the  stomach.  Carnivorous  animals  classi- 
fied by  their  teeth — terridents  with  tearing  teeth  :  mol- 
lidents  with  crushing  teeth  —  rodents  with  gnawing 
teeth — edents  without  teeth. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  300 

Lessons  in  Color. — Shades  and  tints  developed,  and 
the  principal  ones  named  and  applied  to  familiar  ob- 
jects. 

Geography.  —  The  State  continued:  the  counties, 
names  and  location — the  people — occupations.  Princi- 
pal cities  :  where  situated — what  determined  their  loca- 
tion— what  is  the  leading  occupation  of  the  people  of 
each.  The  government  of  the  State  :  the  departments 
of  government — State  officers — State  buildings — the 
Capitol — State  prisons — State  charitable  institutions — 
State  elections.     The  study  of  the  map  made  by  pupils. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Topical  recitations  in  the  various 
branches  continued.  Some  facts  in  regard  to  frost,  snow 
or  ice,  or  their  effects,  observed  and  described  by  pupils 
each  week. 

Reading. — Fourth  reader  continued.  Historical  and 
biographical  sketches  continued.  Fine  poetical  selec- 
tion committed  to  memory,  and  recited  occasionally. 

Spelling. — Spelling  of  new  words  continued.  The 
law  in  regard  to  the  use  of  ie  and  ei  developed  from 
practical  examples  and  applied. 

Writing. — One  regular  exercise  to  be  written  out 
daily.  Study  of  occupations  continued.  Manufacture 
of  cotton  and  wool  into  cloth  :  picking — carding — spin- 
ning —  doubling  —  twisting  — weaving — coloring — na  p- 
ping  and  shearing  woolens — finishing — calico-printing. 
Leather:  tanning  —  currying.  Paper:  materials  of 
which  it  is  made  —  bleaching  —  grinding — mixing  in 
water  —  collecting  in  the  form  of  sheets  —  drying — 
finishing. 


330         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIILNG. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Extension. — The  denominations  of  cubic 
measure  introduced  objectively,  exemplified  and  applied. 
Blocks  representing  a  cubic  incli  and  a  cubic  foot  should 
be  used,  so  that  definite  ideas  of  these  magnitudes  may 
be  obtained.  Twelve  pieces  of  board,  each  one  foot 
square  and  one  inch  thick,  would  make  a  convenient 
representation  of  a  cubic  foot.  One  of  these  pieces 
should  be  divided  into  twelve  strips,  each  one  inch 
square  and  one  foot  long ;  and  one  of  the  strips  should 
again  be  divided  into  twelve  parts,  each  one  a  cubic 
inch. 

Arithmetic. — Prime  numbers — methods  of  factoring 
— greatest  common  divisor.  Practice  in  the  fundamen- 
tal rules. 

Third,  or  Spring  Term, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Parts  of  plants  used  for  food : 
roots  —  stalks — leaves  —  flowers  —  fruits — pith — juice. 
Classification  of  known  plants  upon  this  basis.  Com- 
mon articles  used  for  food  or  in  the  preparation  of  food : 
tapioca — sago — sea-moss — rice — cinnamon  —  nutmegs — 
mace  —  cloves  — mustard — pepper — sugar-cane — maple 
— beets,  etc. 

Physiology. — Blood  :  its  constituents — how  made — 
how  circulated.  The  heart — arteries — veins — capillaries. 
The  changes  which  blood  undergoes  in  the  capillaries. 

Geography. — General  review  of  the  State.  A  brief 
notice  of  the  surrounding  States,  their  size  and  relative 
positions.  The  names  of  the  States  of  the  Union  and 
their  grouping.     The  five  regions  of  production :  grass 


GENERAL    COURSE   OF   STUDY.  331 

— wheat — corn  and  tobacco — rice  and  cotton — sugar. 
The  earth  considered  as  a  whole :  form  and  size — divis- 
ions into  land  and  water.  The  continents  and  grand 
divisions  of  land,  their  resemblances  and  contrasts.  The 
ocean,  its  divisions  and  branches.  At  this  point  of  in- 
struction the  globe  should  be  introduced,  and  used  in 
connection  with  every  lesson. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. — Topical  recitation  in  the  various 
branches  continued.  Experiments  made  and  some  facts 
reported  in  regard  to  vegetable  growth  by  each  pupil 
once  a  week. 

Reading. — Fourth  reader  continued.  Items  of  news 
read  from  the  papers.  Interesting  incidents  selected 
and  read  by  the  pupils.  Pupils  instructed  to  search  and 
find  articles  upon  subjects  specified  by  teacher,  to  be 
read  in  class. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  all  new  words  continued. 
The  custom  in  regard  to  the  sound  of  sh,  and  what  let- 
ters are  used  to  express  it,  and  under  what  circumstances 
each  is  used. 

Writing. — One  regular  exercise  to  be  written  out 
daily.  Study  of  occupations  continued.  Conversion 
of  the  fabrics  already  noticed  into  special  products. 
Woolen  cloth  :  clothing — blankets — carpets,  etc.  Cot- 
ton and  linen:  clothing — table-linen — bed-linen — cur- 
tains, etc.  Leather :  boots  and  shoes — harnesses — trunks 
— belts — whips — clothing,  etc.  Paper:  writing-paper 
— printing-paper — wrapping-paper — drawing-paper,  etc. 
Other  products:  thread — twine — ropes — matting — fun 
— hats,  etc. 


332         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Les8o?is  in  Form  and  Size. — General  review  of  the 
work  gone  over  during  the  year. 

Arithmetic. — Least  common  multiple.  General  re- 
view and  practice  in  the  preceding  rules. 

SIXTH  GKADE. 

First,  ok  Autumn  Teem, 
natural  science. 

Lessons  in  Plants. — Plants  useful  for  other  pur- 
poses besides  food.  Lumber:  oak — pine — walnut — 
cherry — chestnut — hemlock — maple — cedar — rosewood 
— mahogany,  etc.  Textile  :  cotton — flax — hemp — ma- 
nila — jute.  Medicinal :  cinchona — rhubarb — aloes,  etc. 
Coloring :  indigo — madder  —  logwood  —  fustic  —  cochi- 
neal-cactus, etc.  Beverages  :  tea  —  coffee  —  cocoa  — 
mate.  Narcotics  :  tobacco  —  poppy  —  hasheesh,  etc. 
Mechanical :  bamboo — palm-leaves  —  grasses  —  broom- 
corn — teasels — rattan — cork — osiers — ivory  -  plant,  etc. 
Ornamental :  shade-trees — plants  of  beautiful  forms  or 
with  beautiful  flowers  or  foliage. 

Physiology. — Breathing  apparatus  :  the  trachea — 
the  bronchial  tubes — the  lungs.  The  relation  of  air  to 
life.  The  necessities  of  pure  air.  The  sources  of  im- 
purity :  animal  exhalations — breathing — combustion — 
stagnant  water — decaying  animal  matter — decaying  veg- 
etation. The  breathing  of  fishes  and  of  the  lower  forms 
of  animal  life. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — The  air  :  wind — force  of  the 
wind  —  breezes  —  storms — whirlwinds — tornadoes — wa- 
terspouts —  sand  -  storms  —  windmills  —  sailing  -  vessels. 


GENERAL  COURSE   OF  STUDY.  333 

Gravitation  :  direction  of  falling  bodies — plumb-line — 
weight — relative  weight  of  bodies — weight  of  solids — 
liquids  — gases  —  water-level  —  fluid-level  —  position  of 
fluids  of  different  weight. 

Geography. — South  America  :  outline  map  drawn — 
position — form  —  boundaries  —  mountains  —  plateaus — 
plains  —  rivers  —  climate — productions — minerals — ani- 
mals. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises.  —  Topical  recitations  continued. 
Once  a  week  several  lessons  of  one  branch  of  instruc- 
tion combined  and  given  in  the  form  of  connected  dis- 
course. 

Heading. — Fourth  reader  continued.  Description 
of  natural  scenery  selected  by  pupils  and  read  in 
class,  such  as  Niagara  Falls,  the  Mammoth  Cave,  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  the  Geysers  of  the  Yellowstone, 
etc. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  new  words  continued. 
Attention  given  to  the  different  letters  and  combina- 
tions of  letters  used  to  represent  the  sound  of  long  a. 

Writing. — One  regular  exercise  written  out  daily. 
Study  of  occupations  continued.  Honse-bnilding.  Ma- 
terials :  logs — lumber — stone — brick.  Preparation  of 
materials  :  chopping — peeling — sawing — rafting — quar- 
rying— brick-making.  Processes  :  carpentering — brick- 
laying— plastering,  etc. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Extension. — The  French  metric  sy.-tnii 
of  linear  measure.  The  denominations,  and  their  com- 
parison with  the  measures  in  common  use. 


334         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Arithmetic.  —  Fractions.  Fundamental  principles 
objectively  presented.  Kinds  of  fractions.  Reductions 
of  one  form  to  another.  Rules  derived  from  the  rela- 
tions of  division. 


Second,  oe  Winter  Teem, 
natural  science. 

Physiology. — Animal  heat :  how  generated — how 
preserved — heat-producing  foods — how  animals  are  pro- 
tected from  cold.  Relations  of  animals  to  food  and 
climate.  Artificial  protection  against  heat  and  cold. 
Clothing :  adaptation  of  clothing  to  climate — clothing 
worn  in  different  climates — uses  of  different  kinds  of 
clothing — materials — color.  Sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature :  effects — hygienic  laws  in  regard  to  tempera- 
ture. 

Lessons  in  Color. — Definite  proportions  in  color. 
The  solar  spectrum.  Complementary  colors.  Harmony 
of  colors.    General  review  of  the  whole  subject  of  color. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — Effect  of  heat  upon  air :  com- 
parative weight  of  hot  and  cold  air — disturbance  of 
equilibrium — circulation  of  air — draught — chimneys — 
smoke — ventilation.  Weight  of  gases  :  bubbles — bal- 
loons— diffusion  of  gases. 

Geography. — South  America  continued :  countries 
— people — races — peculiar  manners  and  customs — intel- 
ligence— industries — exports  of  different  countries — 
governments — religions — social  condition  of  the  people 
— works  of  art  and  internal  improvements.  Cities  :  rela- 
tive size — where  situated — what  determined  their  loca- 
tion— for  what  noted. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  335 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises.  —  Topical  recitations  continued. 
Combined  recitations  in  the  form  of  discourse  continued 
once  a  week.  The  oral  exercises  may  be  varied  by  oc- 
casional poetic  and  prose  recitations,  care  being  taken  to 
make  such  selections  as  will  be  of  interest  to  the  pupils. 

Reading. — Fourth  reader  continued.  Descriptions 
of  curious  habitations,  or  of  curious  implements  used 
by  man,  selected  by  pupils  and  read  in  class. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  new  words  continued. 
Attention  given  to  the  different  letters  and  combinations 
of  letters  that  represent  the  sounds  of  long  e  and  i. 

Writing. — One  regular  exercise  written  out  daily. 
Occupations  continued.  "Working  in  wood :  cabinet- 
making  —  bridge  -  building —  shingle-making  —  basket- 
making,  etc.  Quarrying:  stone  for  building  —  side- 
walks— monuments — slate  for  schools  and  roofing — pen- 
cils.    Furniture — lime — cement — plaster — salt. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Size.  —  The  metric  system  continued. 
Measures  of  capacity.  Comparisons  of  metric  denom- 
inations with  measures  in  common  use. 

Arithmetic — Fractions  continued.  Practice  in  re- 
ductions. Methods  and  rules  derived  from  mental  anal- 
ysis.    Addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions. 

Third,  ok  Spring  Term. 
natural  science. 
Lessons  in  Plants. — Plants  examined  in  regard  to 
the  possession  of  flowers.     The  terms  phenogamfl  and 


336 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 


cryptogams  introduced  and  applied.     Lists  of  plants 
made  according  to  the  following  schedule  : 


BASE    OF   CLASSIFICATION. 

CLASSES. 

SPECIES. 

Character  of  Stem     .     . 

(  Trees, 
]  Shrubs, 
(  Herbs, 

Permanence  of  Leaves  . 

j  Evergreen, 
\  Deciduous, 

\  Indigenous, 
I  Exotic, 

Methods  of  Growth  .     . 

j  Exogens, 
(  Endogens, 

Possession  of  Flowers   . 

j  Phenogams, 
\  Cryptogams, 

Physiology. — Artificial  protection  against  cold  con- 
tinued. Habitations :  devices  for  warmth — caves  and 
underground  apartments  —  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages. Heating  houses  :  fireplaces — stoves — hot  air — 
steam — ventilation — hygienic  laws. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — Water:  flow  of  water  toward 
water-level  —  force  of  flowing  water  —  water-wheels. 
Pressure  of  water — effect  of  heat  upon  water.  Evapo- 
ration :  amount  of  water  in  the  air — circulation  of  moist- 
ure by  winds  —  condensation  —  fogs  —  clouds — mist — 
rain — snow. 

Geography. — North  America :  outline  map  drawn — 
position  —  form  —  boundaries  — mountains — plateaus — 
plains — rivers — lakes — climates — productions — animals 
— minerals. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  337 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral  Exercises. —  Topical  recitations  continued. 
Combined  recitations  in  the  form  of  discourse  continued 
once  a  week. 

Reading. — Fourth  reader  completed.  Descriptions 
of  curious  customs  in  different  countries  selected  by  pu- 
pils and  read  in  class. 

Spelling. — The  spelling  of  new  words  continued. 
Attention  given  to  the  different  pronunciations  of  ou/jh. 

Writing. — One  regular  exercise  written  out  daily. 
Occupations  continued.  Iron.  Processes  :  mining — 
smelting  —  casting  —  puddl  ing  —  hammering  — oiling. 
Products :  cast-iron  —  wrought-iron  —  malleable  iron  — 
steel.  Special  products:  cast  into  stoves,  hollow-ware, 
wheels,  etc. —  rolled  into  boiler-plates,  railroad-bars,  etc. 
— wrought  into  nails,  screws,  bolts,  etc. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons  in  Weight. — Metric  system  continued.  De- 
nominations of  weight.  Comparison  with  denominations 
of  avoirdupois  weight.     Review  of  the  metric  system. 

Arithmetic. — Fractions  completed.  Multiplication 
and  division.     Miscellaneous  examples  for  practice. 


SENIOR  DEPARTMENT. 

General  Description. —  In   the   senior  department 
the  instruction  becomes  more  analytical,  and  it  includes 
topics  which  progressively  bring  more  into  DBG  the  rea- 
soning powers  of  the  mind. 
15 


338         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

In  science,  the  objective  course  in  physics  is  com- 
pleted in  the  seventh  grade.  The  special  objects  of 
this  course  are  to  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  investi- 
gate and  reason  in  the  field  of  causes  ;  to  supply  them 
with  elementary  knowledge  of  forces,  so  that  they  will 
be  able  to  understand  other  subjects  which  they  are 
called  upon  to  study ;  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  more 
extended  work  upon  the  same  subject  in  the  academic 
department.  Physiology  is  continued  and  completed 
in  the  eighth  grade.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to 
give  to  this  subject  an  exhaustive  treatment ;  but  from 
its  study,  following  the  lessons  upon  animals,  the  pupil 
has  gained  a  general  knowledge  of  animal  life,  the  re- 
lations of  the  various  kinds  of  animals  to  each  other, 
the  structure  of  the  human  body,  the  functions  of  its 
principal  parts,  and  the  laws  which  must  be  obeyed  to 
insure  health.  This  study  is  of  prime  importance  to 
those  about  to  leave  school  and  enter  upon  practical  du- 
ties ;  and  it  is  an  excellent  preparative  for  more  extended 
and  professional  study  on  the  part  of  those  who  con- 
tinue in  school. 

Lessons  in  botany  are  given  twice  a  week  during 
the  spring  term  of  each  grade,  the  time  most  favorable 
for  the  collection  and  study  of  flowers.  This  arrange- 
ment keeps  alive  the  pupil's  interest  in  plants,  and  pre- 
pares him  for  the  advanced  work  in  the  academic  de- 
partment. 

Geography  is  continued  and  finished.  The  geo- 
graphical exercises  are  made  to  include  the  facts  of  both 
physical  and  civil  geography,  and  the  facts  and  princi- 
ples of  astronomical  geography.  A  few  lessons  in  min- 
eralogy are  given  to  accustom  the  pupils  to  observe  the 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  ;;.;.i 

facts  of  the  mineral  world,  and  as  a  preparation  for  ge- 
ology further  along. 

In  language,  the  distinctive  oral  exarcises,  as  prac- 
tised in  the  grades  below,  are  omitted,  topical  recita- 
tions and  class  discussions  furnishing  sufficient  drill  of 
this  kind.  The  reading,  after  the  seventh  grade,  con- 
sists wholly  of  carefully-selected  literary  matter  from 
the  works  of  well-known  English  and  American  authors. 
The  authors  named  have  been  selected  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  a  variety  of  interesting  reading  to  the  pu- 
pils, and  of  leading  into  the  different  fields  of  literature. 

To  make  this  kind  of  exercise  a  success,  the  works 
of  these  authors  must  be  accessible  to  the  school.  When 
provision  is  made  for  a  public-school  library,  these  works 
may  be  procured  in  the  place  of  the  trash  which  is  so 
frequently  found  in  such  libraries.  In  case  no  provision 
is  made  for  the  procuring  of  suitable  books,  each  pupil 
maybe  able  to  get  at  least  one  volume  ;  and  this,  added 
to  what  the  teacher  can  furnish,  will  go  a  meat  way 
toward  making  up  the  number  required. 

From  the  authors  named,  selection-  are  to  be  made 
by  the  pupil,  under  the  direction  and  advice  of  the 
teacher,  and  these  are  to  be  read  in  the  class  and  dis- 
cussed until  the  general  style  and  spirit  of  the  author 
is  well  understood.  With  some  of  the  minor  authors 
the  teacher  may  substitute  others  at  his  option,  but 
the  acknowledged  leaders  of  thought  should  not  be 
neglected.  The  more  philosophic  writers  are  omitted, 
their  works  being  reserved  for  the  advanced  course  in 
literature  in  the  academic  department. 

In  writing,  the  occupations  of  men  continue  to  be 
the   basis  of  written   work   twice  a  week,  through   the 


340  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

seventh  and  eighth  grades.  The  materials  for  these  es- 
says may  be  found  by  observing  the  occupations  about 
home,  and  in  books  of  reference.  A  good  encyclopaedia 
ought  to  belong  to  every  school.  In  the  ninth  grade, 
the  general  subjects  of  study  furnish  sufficient  matter 
for  the  written  exercises. 

If  this  course  of  study  is  faithfully  carried  out  in  all 
the  lower  grades,  the  pupils,  by  writing  at  least  one  ex- 
ercise every  day,  become  so  accustomed  to  expressing 
their  thoughts  in  writing  that  the  word  "  composition  " 
has  no  terrors  for  them,  nor  is  there  a  necessity  for  ex- 
tra compositions,  once  in  one  or  two  weeks,  as  is  the 
usual  custom.  No  special  preparation  need  be  made  for 
public  rhetorical  exercises.  The  daily  written  work  of 
the  pupils  affords  a  much  greater  variety  of  topics,  and  is 
treated  in  a  much  more  satisfactory  manner,  both  in  re- 
gard to  thought  and  expression,  than  though  effort  in 
this  direction  be  confined  to  the  periods  of  public  dis- 
play. The  teacher  has  simply  to  make  a  selection  from 
class  essays,  and,  as  these  have  been  constantly  kept  up 
to  the  highest  mark,  they  represent  the  best  effort  of 
the  pupil.  This  course  has  also  its  moral  bearings,  as  it 
is  exactly  what  it  purports  to  be  :  it  is  not  a  special  effort 
put  forth  for  display,  and  offers  no  inducement  to  com- 
mit fraud  for  the  purpose  of  seeming  rather  than  of  being. 

In  the  general  examination,  or  public  exhibitions, 
the  oral  exercises  should  be  made  to  consist  mainly  of 
topical  recitations  and  discussions  of  interesting  subjects. 
These  may  be  varied  by  readings  and  declamations, 
though  the  value  of  the  latter  exercise  is  usually  greatly 
overrated.  The  objects  to  be  gained  in  all  oral  work 
are  to  give  the  pupil  power  and  skill  in  expressing  his 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         341 

thoughts  in  the  most  effective  order,  and  of  thinking 
of  his  subject  while  speaking  or  standing  to  speak.  This 
skill  comes  from  the  practice  of  reciting  topics  in  clear 
connected  discourse  ;  and  declamation,  or  the  delivery  of 
the  words  of  another,  can  afford  little  or  no  aid  to  the 
work.  Still  the  practice  of  committing  to  memory  and 
of  reciting  the  noblest  thoughts  embodied  in  the  most 
beautiful  forms  by  our  best  writers  has  a  value  of  its 
own,  and  should  by  no  means  be  neglected. 

In  the  ninth  grade,  English  grammar,  as  a  special 
study,  is  commenced  and  completed.  The  continual 
practice  of  the  pupils  in  the  use  of  language  through  so 
many  years  gives  them  the  power  to  complete  the  for- 
mal study  in  the  time  assigned  to  it.  Formal  spelling 
is  omitted  in  all  the  grades  of  this  department ;  the 
learning  of  new  words  and  the  daily  written  exercises 
furnish  them  with  sufficient  practice  in  this  direction. 
The  few  rules  of  English  spelling  are  to  be  gradually 
introduced,  and  attention  is  to  be  called  to  the  letters 
and  combination  of  letters  used  to  express  the  various 
elementary  sounds. 

Drawing  should  continue  throughout  this  depart- 
ment, the  work  to  consist  in  progressive  exercises  in 
combinations  of  natural  and  conventional  forms  into 
original  designs;  the  reproduction  of  designs  which 
afford  a  key  to  technical  expressions,  and  in  drawing 
directly  from  real  objects.  In  the  ninth  grade  the  prin- 
ciples of  perspective  should  be  objectively  introduced 
and  applied. 

The  singing-exercises  should  also  be  continued  daily 
throughout  this  department.  At  least  tw<>  new  tunes 
should  be  learned  each  month  ;  and  when  the  pupils 


342         PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

graduate  into  the  academic  department  they  should  be 
able  to  read  any  piece  of  simple  music  at  sight. 

The  free  exercises  in  calisthenics  should  be  continued 
daily ;  and  light  apparatus,  such  as  wands,  light  clubs, 
wooden  dumb-bells,  rings,  and  small  bags  of  corn 
should  be  gradually  introduced.  The  objective  points 
in  this  drill  are  the  promotion  of  health,  the  training  of 
the  muscles  to  exact  and  rhythmic  movement,  the  pres- 
ervation of  physical  symmetry,  and  the  cultivation  of 
graceful  and  elastic  movements.  As  in  the  grades  be- 
low, the  calisthenics  should  be  so  timed  as  to  secure 
perfect  ventilation  of  the  school-room  at  least  once  an 
hour. 

SEYENTH   GKADE. 

Ferst,  or   Autumn    Teem, 
science. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — Adhesion — cohesion — degrees  of 
cohesion — illustrations — capillary  attraction — nature  and 
effect.  Motion  :  inertia — cause  of  motion — effects  of 
motion — direction  of  motion — from  a  single  force — 
from  several  forces — resultant  motion — effect  of  sudden 
arrest  of  motion — friction — circular  motion.  Centrifu- 
gal and  centripetal  forces. 

Lessons  in  Minerals. — Two  lessons  a  week  during 
the  term  upon  the  metals,  their  appearance  and  quali- 
ties. Iron,  copper,  zinc,  nickel,  gold,  and  silver  exam- 
ined and  compared  in  regard  to  qualities.  Mercury, 
tin,  and  antimony  in  like  manner  examined. 

Geography. — North  America  completed :  political 
divisions — governments  — people — origin  —  race — char- 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  343 

acter  —  intelligence  —  industries  —  habitation  —  food — 
clothing — adaptation  of  people  to  climate  and  other 
physical  conditions.  Cities  :  where  situated — why  placed 
where  they  are — natural  advantages — artificial  helps — 
relative  size — leading  industries. 

LANGUAG  E. 

Beading.  —  Fifth  reader  commenced.  Exercises 
commenced  leading  into  the  study  of  literature.  Speci- 
mens read  in  class  from  Jacob  Abbott,  Dickens,  Bryant, 
and  Longfellow.  Enough  should  be  read  from  these 
authors  to  give  the  pupils  a  general  idea  of  the  style 
and  spirit  of  their  works.  Biographical  sketches 
should  be  given,  and  a  list  of  these  principal  works 
made  out. 

Writing. — Occupations  of  men  continued,  and  made 
the  basis  of  written  work.  The  manufacture  of  glass 
and  pottery  :  different  kinds  of  pottery — materials  used 
— processes — glass-ware — plate-glass — mirrors.  Manu- 
facture of  brick — pins— needles — watches.  Printing  : 
type-setting — press-work.  Such  other  manufactures  as 
may  be  in  the  neighborhood,  or  the  description  of  which 
is  easily  accessible.  The  written  work  for  the  other 
three  days  of  the  week  should  be  connected  with  the 
science  and  literature  which  are  being  pursued  at  this 
time. 

MATIIKMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Decimals  commenced  and  completed. 
Decimal  expression  shown  to  be  the  common  notation 
extended  to  the  right  of  decimal  point.  Decimal  oper- 
ations. Applications  t6  United  States  currency,  and  to 
the  metric  system  of  measures  and  weights. 


344       principles  and  practice  of  teaching. 

Second,  or  Winter  Term, 
science. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — Heat :  maimer  of  transmission 
— radiation — conduction — convection — effect  of  heat 
upon  bodies,  solids,  liquids,  gases — conductors  of  heat — 
non-conductors — heat  applied  to  water — evaporation — 
vapor — steam — boiling.  Cold  :  protection  from  cold — 
ice — effects  of  freezing — snow — effects  upon  climate  and 
vegetation. 

Lessons  in  Minerals. — Two  lessons  a  week  upon  the 
common  minerals  :  granite — limestone — sandstone — 
slate.  Principal  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  ex- 
amined and  compared.  Sufficient  attention  given  to 
this  subject  to  enable  pupils,  in  a  general  way,  to  distin- 
guish the  different  rocks. 

Geography. — Europe  :  outline  map  drawn — position 
—  f  orm — boundaries  —  reliefs — mountains  —  plateaus — 
plains — general  slope  —  drainage —  rivers  —  lakes  —  cli- 
mate —  productions  —  animals — minerals  —  situation  of 
different  countries — comparison  in  regard  to  surface, 
climate,  and  productions. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Fifth  reader  continued.  Literary  exer- 
cises continued.  Extracts  read  from  Whittier,  Lowell, 
Louisa  Alcott,  and  Irving.  Care  taken  to  make  such 
selections  as  can  readily  be  understood,  and  can  excite 
an  interest.  Biographical  sketches  and  a  list  of  the 
works  of  these  authors  made. 

Writing. — Occupations  of  men  continued.  Buying 
and  selling,  called  trade.     Articles  sold  from  this  vicin- 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  345 

ity.  Articles  sold  by  farmers  :  to  whom  sold — how 
transported.  Kame  of  those  engaged  in  trade  :  peddlers 
— tradesmen — merchants.  How  goods  are  transported : 
on  the  backs  of  men — on  horses — mules — llamas — cam- 
els— elephants — by  wagons — cars  on  railways — boats  on 
canals — sailing-vessels  and  steamships  on  lakes,  rivers, 
and  the  ocean.     Trade  on  a  large  scale  called  commerce. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic.  —  Denominate  numbers  commenced. 
The  tables  of  weights,  measures,  and  value,  before 
learned  objectively,  reviewed  and  extended.  Reduc- 
tions ascending  and  descending.  The  mental  processes 
involved  in  the  reductions  clearly  presented,  and  ex- 
planations made  in  accordance  with  them.  Rules  de- 
rived from  processes. 


Third,  or  Spring  Term. 

SCIENCE. 

Lessons  in  Forces. — Gravitation :  centre  of  gravity — 
equilibrium — law  of  stability — weight  of  the  air — pumps 
— the  barometer — intermittent  springs — fountains — ar- 
tesian wells.  Pressure  of  air  :  at  ocean-level — on  moun- 
tain-tops — in  deep  mines.  Thunder  and  lightning  :  elec- 
tricity— how  produced — how  conducted. 

Lessons  in  Minerals. — Two  lessons  a  week  upon 
minerals.  Observation  of  the  rocks  and  beds  of  earth 
near  the  school.  Gravel,  sand,  clay — how  derived  :  strati- 
fication— how  produced. 

Botany. — One  lesson  a  week  upon  plants.  The 
manner  in  which  buds  are  protected  in  winter.     Tlie 


346  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

flow  of  sap  in  spring.     Observations  in  regard  to  the  grad- 
ual unfolding  of  buds  to  the  perfected  leaf  and  flower. 

Geography. — Europe  completed  :  political  divisions 
— governments  —  people  —  origin  —  race  —  character — 
manners — intelligence — industries — comparisons  of  dif- 
ferent nations — habitations,  food,  and  clothing  of  the 
people — adaptation  to  climate  and  physical  conditions — 
exports  of  the  different  countries.  Cities  :  where  situated 
— natural  advantages — artificial  helps — relative  size — 
leading  peculiarities — industries. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Fifth  reader  completed.  Literary  exer- 
cises continued.  Extracts  read  from  Halleck,  Trow- 
bridge, Willis,  and  Bayard  Taylor.  Biographical  sketch- 
es given,  and  lists  of  their  principal  works  made.  Au- 
thors classified  as  poets,  novelists,  and  historians. 

Writing.  —  Occupations  continued.  Commerce  : 
principal  American  ports — exports — kinds — to  what 
countries.  Principal  imports :  from  what  countries — 
tea  —  coffee — sugar  —  spices  —  cocoa  —  cochineal —  log- 
wood —  mahogany — rosewood  —  oranges —  lemons — ba- 
nanas— raisins  —  figs — dates — manila  —  rice — cutlery  — 
woolen  goods  —  glass-ware  —  pottery  —  linen  —  hemp 
goods — fine  cottons — watches — lace  —  ivory — ebony — 
hides — leather — lacquered  ware,  etc. 

The  other  written  exercises  should  be  connected 
with  the  geography  of  Europe,  the  minerals  studied, 
and  the  literary  works  of  the  authors  read.  By  con- 
fining the  attention  to  a  few  subjects,  and  by  co- 
ordinating the  various  studies  so  that  they  may  all  be 
made  to  bear  upon  one  point,  much  greater  progress 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  34.7 

will  be  made  than  by  giving  attention  to  a  larger  num- 
ber of  studies  at  one  time. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Denominate  numbers  completed.  Ad- 
dition, subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division.  The 
general  laws  derived  that  include  simple  and  denominate 
operations. 

EIGHTH  GEADE. 

First,  or    Autumn-    Term, 
science. 

Physiology. — The  bones  :  composition — structure — 
office — examination  of  the  different  bones — their  form 
— adaptation  to  their  uses — processes — joints.  Liga- 
ments :  structure — uses.  Muscles  :  structure — uses — 
attachments — kinds  of  muscles.  Mechanical  principles 
involved  in  the  uses  of  the  muscles  and  bones.  Special 
study  of  the  hand  and  foot.  Comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  extremities  of  the  anterior  and  poste- 
rior limbs  of  various  animals. 

Botany. — One  lesson  a  week  upon  fruits  and  seeds. 
The  different  kinds — how  protected — how  distributed. 
The  parts  necessary  for  germination.  Other  methods 
of  propagation. 

Geography. — Asia  completed  :  outline  map  drawn 
— position  —  form — boundaries  —  reliefs — mountains — 
plateaus — plains  —  drainage — rivers  —  lakes — climate — 
productions  —  animals  —  minerals  —  p< ilitical  <  1  i v isions ; 
exports  of  the  different  countries — people  -races— char- 
acter— manners — intelligence.    Cities  :  where  situated  — 


348         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

relative  size — advantages  of  situation — for  what  noted — 
ancient  cities. 

LANGUAGE. 

Beading. — The  reading  to  consist  entirely  of  literary 
selections  made  by  teachers  and  pupils.  Extracts  read 
from  the  works  of  Helen  Hunt  (H.  H.),  Thomas  Hughes 
(Tom  Brown),  T.  Buchanan  Reid,  and  Ross  Browne. 
Biographical  sketches  and  lists  of  principal  works  made. 

Writing. — Occupations  of  men  continued.  Hunt- 
ing :  kinds  of  animals  hunted — those  that  furnish  food, 
fur,  bone,  etc. — those  that  are  dangerous — weapons  used 
in  hunting,  clubs,  spears,  bows  and  arrows,  and  guns — 
animals  used  in  hunting,  dogs,  leopards,  ferrets,  falcons, 
etc. — hunting  lions,  tigers,  elephants,  etc.  Trapping  : 
kinds  of  traps — animals  trapped. 

The  other  written  exercises  upon  topics  relating  to 
physiology,  botany,  and  literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Percentage — general  principles — base 
— per  cent. — per  centage — relations.  Applications  to 
different  cases.  Mental  analysis.  Rules  derived  and 
applied. 

Second,  or  Winter  Teem, 
science. 
Physiology. — Review  of  the  digestive  apparatus: 
the  intestines — the  pancreas — the  liver — the  bile — the 
lacteals  —  the  thoracic  duct.  Products  of  digestion 
merged  in  circulation.  Action  of  the  lungs  upon  the 
blood — excretions  from  the  lungs.  Digestion,  circula- 
tion and  respiration  parts  of  one  system.     Hygienic  laws 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         349 

ia  regard  to  the  care  of  the  digestive  organs  :  the  selec- 
tion of  proper  food — the  preparation  of  food — the  time 
for  taking  food — exercise  as  promoting  digestion. 

Geography. — Africa  and  Oceanica.  Physical  feat- 
ures complete  as  in  the  other  grand  divisions.  The 
people,  their  intelligence,  industries,  etc.  Cities.  Gen- 
eral view  of  man  in  regard  to  civilization,  religion,  and 
government.  Imaginary  voyages  made,  giving  direc- 
tions from  place  to  place,  means  of  travel,  and  route 
passed  over.  Trading  voyages  made,  carrying  goods 
needed  to  foreign  ports,  and  obtaining  in  turn  the  arti- 
cles produced  and  exported  from  the  country  visited. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Literary  work  continued.  Extracts  from 
the  works  of  Mrs.  Whitney,  Mary  Ilowitt,  Robert 
Southey,  and  O.  W.  Holmes.  Biographical  sketches 
and  lists  of  principal  works  made. 

Writing. — Occupations  of  men  continued.  Fishing 
and  the  fisheries  :  modes  of  catching  fish,  hooks,  seines, 
traps — kinds  of  fish  usually  caught — fishing  for  sport — 
fishing  for  fish — cod-fisheries — mackerel — menhaden — 
the  whale-fisheries — kinds  of  whales — how  captured — 
parts  of  the  whale  used — other  kinds  of  fish  caught  for 
their  oil.  Much  valuable  information  on  this  general 
subject,  and  others  of  a  similar  kind,  may  be  found  in 
the  magazines.  When  such  an  article  is  found,  it  should 
be  preserved  until  such  time  as  it  is  needed.  As  the 
pupils  become  interested  in  subjects  of  this  kind,  they 
will  be  also  on  the  lookout  for  magazine  articles  giving 
them  practical  information  thus  acquiring  the  habit  of 
reading  and  of  examining  everything  that  comes  in  the 


350         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

way.     The  other  written  exercises  of  this  term  should 
be  upon  physiology  and  literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic — Interest.  The  four  elements,  base,  per 
cent.,  percentage,  time.  The  relations  of  time  to  in- 
terest. Simple  interest,  annual,  compound.  Interest  on 
notes.     Partial  payments.     United  States  Court  rule. 

Third,  or  Spring  Teem. 
science. 

Physiology. — The  skin,  its  structure  and  functions. 
Absorbents,  excretions.  The  nervous  system  :  brain — 
structure — the  spinal  cord — general  nerves — motor — 
sensory — functions  of  each.  Nerves  of  special  sense : 
touching — tasting — smelling — hearing — seeing.  Hygi- 
ene of  the  nerves :  necessities  of  work — rest — sleep — 
recreations.     General  review  of  physiology. 

Botany. — Two  lessons  a  week  upon  flowers,  their 
structure  and  parts. 

Geography. — Special  study  of  United  States.  Por- 
tions of  the  several  States.  The  grouping  of  the  States. 
Special  adaptation  of  the  different  sections  to  different 
industries.  The  situation  of  the  principal  cities.  TVTiy 
they  are  so  situated ;  the  natural  and  acquired  advan- 
tages of  each.  The  natural  highways.  The  routes  of 
travel  between  different  sections.    Ideal  journeys  made. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Exercises  in  literature  continued.  Ex- 
tracts made  from  the  works  of  Bancroft,  Prescott,  and 
Bret  Harte.     Biographical  sketches  and  lists  of  works 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  351 

made.  Authors  classified  in  regard  to  topics  treated. 
Comparisons  made  between  those  in  the  same  depart- 
ment, as  between  the  poets  Bryant  and  Longfellow. 

Writing. — Occupations  of  men  continued.  Special 
kinds  of  work  :  banking — care  of  railroad-trains — sur- 
veying— engineering.  The  professions  :  preachers — 
doctors — lawyers — teachers — preparations  necessary  for 
successful  work. 

The  other  written  work  of  this  term  should  consist 
of  essays  upon  physiology,  botany,  and  literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Application  of  percentage  to  various 
business  operations  :  banking — discount — brokerage — 
stocks — exchange — equations  of  payments,  etc. 


NINTH  GKADE. 
First,   or   Autumn   Term, 
science   and  philosophy . 
P/iysical  Geography. — Consideration  of  forces  now 
in  action  that  are  producing  changes  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth  :  flowing  of  water,  in  disrupting  rocks  and  de- 
positing debris — waves  of  the  ocean,  in  undermining 
rocks,  in  rounding  fragments,  and  in  throwing  up  banks 
of  sand  and  pebbles — currents  of  the  ocean — winds,  in 
drifting  sand — frost,  in  disrupting  rocks — glaciers,  in 
transporting  rocks — volcanoes  and  earthquakes,  in  pro- 
ducing violent  eruptions   and  upheavals — slow   move 
ments   of    upheavals    and    depression — vegetation,   in 
changing  the  character  of  the  surface — animal  life,  in 
building  the  coral  reefs  and  the  like. 


352         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

The  great  mountain  systems  of  the  world,  with  their 
slopes  forming  continents.  Outline  and  reliefs  of  the 
continents.     Drainage  and  river  systems. 

History. — The  history  of  the  United  States.  Abo- 
riginal America.  The  mound-builders,  the  Aztec  races, 
the  Indians,  manners,  customs,  employments,  habita- 
tions, government,  etc.  Discoveries  by  the  Spanish, 
English,  French,  and  Dutch.  Trading  expeditions. 
Settlements  :  Spanish  —  French  —  English  —  Dutch  — 
Swedes  —  Danes.  Motives  of  the  different  colonists. 
Colonial  governments.  Wars  with  the  Indians.  Inter- 
necine wars.  General  progress  of  industry,  intelligence, 
and  the  arts,  down  to  the  Kevolutionary  period. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Exercises  in  literature  continued.  Ex- 
tracts from  "Walter  Scott,  J.  G.  Saxe,  Motley,  and  Haw- 
thorne, with  biographical  sketches  and  lists  of  works. 

Writing. — Daily  written  exercises  upon  topics  con- 
nected with  the  studies  of  the  term.  Questions  like 
the  following  may  receive  attention,  exciting  a  deeper 
interest  in  the  studies  pursued  :  Describe  the  west  coast 
of  Norway,  and  give  reasons  for  its  peculiar  structure. 
Describe  the  sand  dunes  of  France.  Describe  the  Mer 
de  Glace  of  the  Alps.  What  evidences  have  we  of  a 
gradual  change  in  the  height  of  the  land  ?  Describe  the 
coral  islands,  and  give  an  account  of  their  probable 
formation. 

Give  a  description  of  the  city  of  Mexico  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  invasion.  Give  an  account  of  aborigi- 
nal Indian  life.  Give  a  biographical  sketch  of  John 
Smith.     Describe  the  daily  life  of  the  Puritans  soon 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  353 

after  their  first  settlement  in  Massachusetts.  Give  a 
sketch  of  the  Acadians  as  described  by  Bancroft  and 
Longfellow.  Describe  the  League  of  the  Iroquois,  the 
nations  that  composed  it,  and  its  form  of  government 
and  religion. 

This  list  may  be  indefinitely  extended,  but  enough 
is  given  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  work  proposed. 
The  main  point  is  to  have  a  daily  essay,  and  to  insure 
habits  of  research  and  investigation  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils. 

Grammar. — Analysis  of  language  from  the  bases  of 
thought.  Sentences.  Elements  of  a  sentence  :  princi- 
pal subject  and  predicate — subordinate,  objective,  ad- 
jective, and  adverbial.  Sentences  analyzed.  Laws  of 
construction.  Practice  of  construction  founded  upon 
these  laws. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic.  —  Proportion,  simple  and  compound. 
Comparison  of  the  processes  and  results  of  proportion 
with  those  of  analysis. 


Second,  ok  "Winter  Term, 
science  and  philosophy. 

Physical  Geography. — The  ocean  :  extent — waves 
— tides  —  currents.  The  atmosphere  :  climate  —  the 
winds — trade-winds — zones  of  calms — regions  of  vari- 
able winds — monsoons — the  simoon — the  sirocco.  Moist- 
ure in  the  atmosphere  :  sources — distribution— conden- 
sation —  rainless  regions.  Vegetation  :  flora  of  the 
different  zones  and  continents — laws  of  distribution. 
Animal  life:    fauna  of  the  different   zonee  and  conti- 


354  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

nents — laws  of  distribution — dependence  upon  climate 
and  productions.  The  general  distribution  of  the  hu- 
man race.     Relations  of  man  to  physical  nature. 

History. — History  of  the  United  States  continued  : 
the  Revolution  :  causes,  events,  results — the  formation 
of  the  United  States  Government — the  Constitution — 
political  parties,  their  origin  and  changes — the  adminis- 
trations— the  acquirement  of  new  territory — the  admis- 
sions of  new  States — controversies  and  wars  with  for- 
eign nations — internal  political  questions  and  contro- 
versies— the  civil  war,  its  origin,  progress,  and  results. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Literary  exercises  continued.  Extracts 
from  Edgar  A.  Poe,  J.  K.  Paulding,  Whipple,  and  Cur- 
tis, with  biographical  sketches  and  lists  of  works. 

Writing. — Daily  written  exercises  upon  topics  con- 
nected with  the  studies  of  the  term.  Examples.  De- 
scribe tornadoes,  the  sand-storms  of  the  deserts,  and 
water-spouts,  and  show  their  connections.  Describe  the 
flora  of  the  Amazon.  Describe  the  Australian  fauna. 
Give  a  biographical  sketch  of  Benjamin  Franklin — of 
Thomas  Jefferson — of  Patrick  Henry.  Describe  Bur- 
goyne's  expedition — Greene's  campaign  in  the  South. 
Give  an  account  of  the  colonial  and  continental  con- 
gresses, and  their  results.  Give  a  detailed  account  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence — of  the  formation  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Grammar.  —  Etymology:  parts  of  speech  —  inflec- 
tions. Syntax  :  construction  of  sentences — laws  of  con- 
struction founded  upon  general  custom — rules  of  criti- 
cism derived  from  the  practice  of  construction. 


GENERAL   COURSE   OF   STUDY.  355 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Square  and  cube  root.  Mcusuration. 
Intellectual  arithmetic  commenced. 

In  all  the  arithmetical  work,  it  is  supposed  that  men- 
tal analysis  has  accompanied  written  work ;  but  during 
the  last  part  of  the  senior  year,  it  is  thought  best  to 
take  up  intellectual  arithmetic  as  a  separate  study,  for 
the  purpose  of  training  the  reasoning  powers  to  exact- 
ness in  thought  and  expression,  and  of  reviewing  the 
arithmetical  field  before  entering  the  academic  depart- 
ment. 

Third,  or  Spring  Term, 
science   and   philosophy. 

Astronomical  Geography.  —  Shape  of  the  earth  : 
how  determined.  Size  :  circumference — polar  diameter 
— equatorial  diameter — inclination  of  axis — poles.  Mo- 
tions :  diurnal — annual — results — succession  of  day  and 
night — the  equinoxes — the  solstices — the  seasons — the 
tropics — the  polar  circles — the  zones — unequal  lengths 
of  day  and  night — temperature  of  the  zones.  Methods 
of  determining  position  and  distance  :  latitude — longi- 
tude— equator — parallels — meridians — prime  meridians. 

Botany. — Two  lessons  a  week.  Analysis  of  flowers. 
Classification  based  on  analysis.  Ten  plants  collected, 
examined,  classified,  and  preserved. 

History.  —  United  States  history  completed.  Ex- 
ploring expeditions  and  results.  Progress  of  agricult- 
ure— of  commerce — of  internal  improvements.  1 1  is 
tory  of  inventions.  Schools,  their  establishment  and 
progress.  The  general  progress  of  science,  art,  litera- 
ture, and  the  periodic  press.     What  are  the  questions 


356  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

to-day  about  which  people  are  interested  ?  What  rela- 
tions does  the  United  States  sustain  to  other  nations  ? 
How  are  national  controversies  settled  ? 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — General  extracts  from  American  authors, 
with  biographical  sketches.  Authors  classified  in  re- 
gard to  character  of  their  works.  Comparisons  made 
between  the  works  of  different  authors  of  the  same  class. 

Writing. — Daily  written  exercises  upon  topics  con- 
nected with  the  studies  of  the  term.  These  topics  will 
be  suggested  by  the  daily  recitations,  each  pupil  to  study 
the  subject  assigned  him  in  some  book  of  reference. 
The  principal  topics  of  tins  term  will  be  in  connection 
with  the  general  history  and  literature  of  the  country. 
The  attention  given  to  these  subjects  has  a  tendency  to 
broaden  the  intellectual  grasp  of  the  pupil,  develop  in 
him  a  habit  and  a  taste  for  research,  and  excite  an  in- 
terest in  worthy  subjects  which  goes  far  to  exclude  un- 
worthy ones. 

Grammar. — The  principles  of  prosody  introduced 
and  exemplified.  Etymology  and  syntax  reviewed. 
Application  of  grammatic  principles  to  parsing. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Arithmetical  and  geometrical  progres- 
sion. Miscellaneous  examples.  Review.  Intellectual 
arithmetic  completed. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         ;;;,7 

ACADEMIC  DEPARTMENT. 

General  Description. — The  course  of  study  in  the 
academic  department  has  been  arranged  principally  for 
the  benefit  of  those  who  go  immediately  from  school 
into  business  or  to  work.  In  any  graded  union  school 
this  class  must  constitute  a  large  majority  of  the  pupils. 

The  branches  pursued  are  those  which  not  only  fur- 
nish the  key  to  successful  labor  in  the  different  depart- 
ments of  industry,  but  are  indispensable  in  giving  such 
a  broad  view  of  the  whole  field  of  knowledge  as  to 
afford  an  intelligent  choice  of  vocation,  while  they  at 
the  same  time  make  the  mind  intelligent  in  regard  to 
the  present  state  of  human  achievements. 

The  methods  pursued  in  this  department  are  succes- 
sively more  analytic  and  critical,  dealing  with  forces, 
causes,  and  laws.  From  the  consideration  of  the  out- 
ward forms  and  the  qualities  of  objects,  the  mind,  is  di- 
rected to  the  contemplation  of  abstract  principles  and 
spiritual  laws  ;  and  these  in  time  are  applied  to  every 
activity  which  affects  human  welfare. 

In  none  of  the  branches  treated  is  the  study  made  ex- 
haustive, but  enough  is  done  to  give  the  student  the 
full  possession  of  the  elements  of  each,  the  nature  and 
scope  of  the  subjects  which  each  considers ;  and  it 
points  out  the  way  by  which  each  may  be  mastered. 

The  physical  sciences  are  continued  in  all  the  grades 
of  the  department,  but  the  humanities  are  progressively 
made  to  occupy  more  of  the  attention.  In  the  tenth 
grade  language  exercises  are  continued  as  distinct  from 
the  other  branches  pursued ;  but  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  grades  the  language  lessons  are   merged  in  the 


358         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

general  branches  pursued,  as  these  studies  are  of  such  a 
character  that  they  furnish  ample  scope  for  thinking, 
and,  in  consequence,  ample  scope  for  the  expression  of 
thought,  both  orally  and  in  writing.  Occasional  exer- 
cises may  be  introduced  in  these  grades,  testing  the  pu- 
pil's knowledge  of  the  subjects  already  studied ;  his 
power  of  coordinating  the  principles  developed  by  the 
several  studies ;  and  his  ability  to  deal  with  a  new  sub- 
ject whenever  presented.  Power  in  this  last  direction 
is  one  of  the  most  important  of  educational  achieve- 
ments, as  it  enables  the  student  to  turn  the  whole  of 
the  intellectual  forces  acquired  during  school  life  to  the 
analysis  of  any  subject  or  the  accomplishment  of  any 
work  which  he  is  called  upon  to  do. 

To  those  preparing  to  enter  college,  or  those  wishing 
the  elements  of  a  classical  course,  Latin  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  constructive  language,  and  rhetoric  in  the 
tenth  grade  for  English  literature  and  analysis  of  words 
in  the  eleventh  grade ;  and  for  the  history  of  art,  his- 
tory of  philosophy  and  general  literature,  in  the  twelfth 
grade. 

Drawing  should  be  continued  daily  in  all  the  grades 
of  this  department.  In  the  general  course,  it  should  be 
made  to  include  the  laws  of  perspective  shading  and 
shadows,  and  practice  in  copying  objects  of  nature  and 
art.  In  the  higher  grades,  the  course  may  be  con- 
tinued in  the  direction  of  art  proper,  or  of  one  of  the 
branches  of  industry,  according  to  the  tastes  or  necessi- 
ties of  the  pupil,  the  preliminary  work  in  the  lower 
grades  being  the  best  preparation  for  either. 

The  music  in  the  department  should  consist  of  tunes 
chaste,  inspiring,  and  elevating.     It  should  also  include 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         359 

the  science  of  music,  progressively  taught  from  the  read- 
ing of  notes  to  the  composition  of  melodies. 

TENTH  GRADE. 

First,  oe  Autumn  Term. 

science  and  philosophy. 

Physics. — Properties  of  matter  reviewed.  Mechan- 
ical forces  :  the.  lever — the  inclined  plane — the  wedge — 
the  pulley — the  screw.  Gravitation  :  motion — acceler- 
ated motion — retarded  motion — friction — the  law  of  fall- 
ing bodies — resultant  motion,  etc.  Hydrostatics :  press- 
ure of  water — mechanical  advantages — illustrations. 
Hydraulics.  Pneumatics  :  weight  of  air — pump — ba- 
rometer— siphon — intermittent  springs,  etc.  Acous- 
tics :  vibrations  of  the  air — sound — transmission  of  sound 
— reflection  of  sound,  etc. 

Civil  Government. — Nature  of  government  in  gen- 
eral :  evolution — the  rule  of  the  head  of  the  family,  or 
patriarchal — the  rule  of  the  strongest,  or  chiefs — the 
hereditary  transmission  of  power  terminating  in  mon- 
archs  —  aristocracies — oligarchies — hierarchies — democ- 
racies— republics.  The  threefold  nature  of  govern- 
ment: legislative — executive — judicial.  Analysis  of  the 
United  States  Constitution.  The  source  of  power.  The 
power  and  limitations  of  each  department  of  govern- 
ment. The  functions  of  town,  county,  State,  and  na- 
tional government. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Extracts  from  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and 
"George  Eliot,"  with  biographical  sketches.  Works 
compared  in  spirit,  matter,  and  style. 


360  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

Writing. — Present  history  taken  as  the  basis  of  daily 
essays.  The  facts  to  be  given  by  teacher,  or  found  in 
books,  magazines,  or  papers,  by  the  pupils.  What  are  the 
questions  of  interest  to  the  public  generally  in  the  vil- 
lage, in  the  county,  State,  nations  ?  England :  politi- 
cal parties — leaders — political  questions — education — 
literature — science — industries,  etc.  France,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  each  examined  to  ascertain  all  questions 
of  present  interest,  so  that  news  items  may  be  thorough- 
ly understood. 

Latin. — Optional  in  the  place  of  the  written  essays. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Algebra. — Through  simple  equations. 

Second, or  Winter  Teem, 
science  and  philosophy. 

Physics. — Heat :  theory  —  sources  —  force — steam- 
engines.  Electricity :  nature — how  excited — voltaic 
battery — galvanic  battery — electric  machines — electro- 
magnetism — natural  magnets — electric  telegraph.  Light : 
wave  theory — color — solar  spectrum — velocity  of  light 
— spectrum  analysis — transmission  of  light — lenses — re- 
fraction, reflection — plane  mirrors — concave — convex. 
The  eye  :  its  mechanism  and  functions — vision. 

General  History. — Myths  of  the  ancient  literature. 
The  Aryan  race,  its  origin  and  spread.  The  first  steps 
in  civilization,  and  the  conditions  most  favorable  for  its 
commencement.  India,  Egypt,  Assyria.  The  com- 
mencement of  veritable  history.  Babylon,  Nineveh, 
Assyria.  The  Medio-Persian  empire.  Greece,  its  an- 
nals, its  mythology,  its  art,  its  literature.     Rome,  its 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  361 

rise,  its  progress  and  fall.  Roman  art,  literature,  and 
jurisprudence.  The  ages  of  change  which  followed  the 
fall  of  Rome. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Extracts  from  Macaulay,  John  Stuart 
Mill,  Carlyle,  and  Ruskin.  "Works  compared  and  clas- 
sified. 

Writing. — The  written  exercises  of  this  term  should 
be  confined  to  historical  essays  concerning  events  of  the 
period  of  historic  study,  and  to  exercises  which  neces- 
sarily accompany  the  successful  study  of  rhetoric. 

Rhetoric. — The  forms  of  literary  productions.  Fig- 
urative language,  and  the  laws  of  its  use.  Illustrative 
examples  of  the  use  of  figures  derived  from  literature. 
Constructive  work  in  which  figures  are  used. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  the  place  of  rhetoric. 

MATIIEMATI' 

Algebra. — To  quadratic  equations. 

Third,    or   Spring    Term, 
science  am)  philosophy. 

Botany. — Analysis  of  flowers  and  classification  of 
plants.  Microscopic  study  of  plants.  Twenty  plants 
collected,  examined,  classified,  and  preserved. 

General  History. — The  gradual  evolution  of  modern 
nations  from  the  confusion  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
crusades.  The  Moslem  domination  in  Spain.  The  in- 
fluence of  ecclesiastical  beliefs.  The  Reformation. 
The  discovery  of  printing.  The  discovery  of  America. 
The  rise  of  constitutional  government  in  England. 
16 


362  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

The  decline  of  the  Spanisli  power.  Modern  France : 
despotism — religious  wars — revolutions — military  spirit. 
The  national  consolidation  of  Italy  and  Germany.  The 
Turkish  power  :  its  rise,  progress,  and  decline.  Russia : 
its  progress  and  traditional  policy. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Extracts  from  Walter  Scott,  Coleridge, 
Wordsworth,  Hood,  Lamb,  and  Tennyson.  Works  com- 
pared and  classified. 

Writing. — The  daily  written  work  to  consist  of  his- 
torical essays,  and  exercises  connected  with  rhetoric. 
The  historic  essays  may  be  something  as  follows :  Bio- 
graphical sketches  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  Galileo,  Guten- 
berg, Cornelius  Agrippa,  Robert  Bruce,  Christopher 
Columbus,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Frederick  the  Great, 
Humboldt ;  historical  sketches  of  Rhodes,  Constantino- 
ple, Malta,  Granada,  Holland,  the  Universities  of  Ox- 
ford, Cambridge,  Bologna.  Describe  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada, the  trade-guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  monk- 
ish orders,  etc. 

Rhetoric. — Analysis  of  style.  The  canons  of  good 
taste  in  style.  Elements  of  criticism,  founded  upon 
nature  of  thought  and  expression.  Illustrative  exam- 
ples of  excellence  of  style  in  the  different  departments 
of  thought. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  rhetoric. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Algebra. — Elementary  algebra  completed  and  re- 
viewed. Algebra  and  arithmetic  compared  in  regard 
to  methods  and  principles. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  3G3 

ELEVENTH  GEADE. 

First,    or   Autumn   Term, 
science  and  philosophy. 

Chemistry. — The  characteristics  of  the  common 
metals  reviewed.  A  few  of  the  more  common  salts  with 
metallic  bases  examined.  Chemical  combinations  intro- 
duced experimentally,  the  work  being  done  by  the  pu- 
pils. Alkalies  and  acids,  simple  compounds.  Oxygen 
and  its  combinations.  Water  and  air,  constituents,  and 
how  combined.  Chemical  effect  of  heat.  The  laws  of 
definite  proportions  exemplified  from  experiments  made 
by  the  students. 

Mental  Philosophy. — Analysis  of  the  mental  pow- 
ers, the  particular  function  of  each,  and  the  order  of 
their  development.  The  best  methods  of  culture  to  se- 
cure their  development  in  the  proper  order.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  mind  to  the  body,  and  to  other  minds.  The 
relations  of  knowledge  to  mental  development. 

LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE. 

English  Literature. — An  historical  view  of  die  Eng- 
lish language.  Elements  derived  from  the  Celtic,  the 
Latin,  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  the  Saxon,  the 
Danish,  theNorman,and  from  the  various  modern  sources. 
A  brief  view  of  the  old  literature,  with  special  attention 
to  the  works  of  Chaucer.  The  Elizabethan  period  with 
Shakespeare  as  its  central  figure.  One  or  more  <>l  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  read  in  class,  and  analyzed  in  regard 
to  sentiment,  unity  of  thought,  and  expression.  The  \v<  »rks 
of  Bacon  and  their  effect  upon  science  and  literature. 
Writing. — Essays  upon  various  subjects  connected 


364  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACIIING. 

with  early  English  literature,  and  exercises  in  mental 
philosophy  and  chemistry. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  English  literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — Geometry  introduced  objectively,  and 
the  work  of  the  first  three  books  accomplished,  the  pu- 
pils being  led  to  make  original  demonstrations  of  the 
various  propositions. 

Second,  ok  Winter  Teem, 
science  and  philosophy. 

Chemistry. — The  atomic  theory.  The  laws  of  defi- 
nite proportions  fully  exemplified.  The  new  chemical 
nomenclature  presented  and  applied.  The  laws  of 
chemical  affinities  derived  from  experiment.  Chemical 
reactions  and  combinations.  Chemical  effects  of  light 
and  electricity.  The  chemistry  of  the  soils.  Life  as 
effecting  chemical  combinations.  Organic  chemistry — 
growth — fermentation — products — decay. 

Mental  Philosophy. — The  examination  of  all  the 
different  branches  of  instruction  in  reference  to  the 
faculties  of  the  mind  which  each  brings  into  action. 
The  different  occupations  and  professions  treated  in  a 
like  manner.  From  these  examinations,  general  laws 
derived  which  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  all  productive 
thought.  The  place  which  the  several  branches  of  in- 
struction should  occupy  in  a  course  of  mental  discipline. 

LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE. 

English  Literature. — The  rise  of  Puritanism,  and 
its  effect  upon  literature.     Milton,  his  works  and  their 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         305 

effect  upon  subsequent  thought.  The  literature  of  the 
period  of  Queen  Anne  :  Addison — Steele — Swift — the 
"Spectator."  Pcpe,  his  writings  and  their  effect.  Samuel 
Johnson,  his  works,  style,  and  influence  upon  literature. 
Sir  Walter  Scott — the  "Edinburgh  Reviewers*' — Byron. 
The  historians :  Hume — Gibbon — Robertson — Ilallam 
— Macaulay — Fronde.  The  effect  of  German  literature 
upon  English  thought.     The  English  literature  of  to-day. 

Writing, — Essays  upon  literature,  and  exercises  in 
chemistry  and  mental  philosophy. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  English  literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — The  work  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
books  in  geometry  accomplished,  the  pupils  originating 
their  demonstrations  instead  of  learning  them  from  the 
book. 

Third,  ok  Spring  Teem. 
science  and  philosophy. 

Comparative  Physiology. — An  examination  of  the 
lower  forms  of  animal  life.  Microscopic  forms  as  found 
in  the  air,  in  water,  etc.  Gradual  differentiation  of  the 
different  systems,  digestive,  respiratory,  circulatory,  ner- 
vous, etc.  The  forms  which  the  different  systems  as- 
sume in  the  different  types  of  animals,  radiates,  mol- 
lusks,  articulates,  and  vertebrates.  Comparison  <>f  the 
vital  processes  of  vegetable  and  animal  life 

Botany. — Two  lessons  a  week.  Ten  plants  collect- 
ed, examined,  classified,  and  preserved.  Special  !-tu<ly 
of  cryptogams. 

Moral  Philosophy. — The  domain  of  morals  includes 


366  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

all  possible  relations  of  one  human  being  with  another. 
Bases  of  moral  action.  Human  needs  resulting  from 
human  existence.  Rights  founded  upon  needs.  Duties 
resulting  from  rights.  The  evolution  of  negative  and 
positive  duties.  The  necessity  of  labor  and  the  amount 
which  every  human  being  should  accomplish.  The 
morality  of  cleanliness,  order,  economy,  and  intelligence. 
An  analysis  of  the  moral  principles  involved  in  study, 
recreation,  games,  work,  dancing,  lotteries,  gambling, 
speculating,  selling  and  drinking  alcoholic  beverages, 
etc.  The  morals  of  trade,  politics,  and  of  general  social 
intercourse.  The  application  of  moral  principles  in  all 
the  concerns  of  life. 

LANGUAGE. 

Analysis  of  Words. — An  historic  view  of  the  Aryan 
family  of  languages.  The  roots  of  words  and  their 
transformations.  General  law  of  the  interchange  of 
letters  and  sounds.  Prefixes  and  suffixes — their  changes 
and  applications.  Lists  of  words  made  out  illustrative  of 
the  laws  of  combination  and  derivation.  The  growth  of 
the  English  language,  its  methods  and  laws.  Illustrative 
history  of  common  words,  their  origin  and  transforma- 
tion. 

Writing. — Essays  upon  physiology  and  moral  phi- 
losophy, and  exercises  in  word-analysis. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  analysis  of  words. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — The  ten  books  of  elementary  geometry 
completed ;  the  pupils  inventing  the  necessary  figures, 
and  performing  original  work  as  in  the  two  preceding 
terms. 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         3G7 

TWELFTH    GRADE. 
First,   or   Autumn   Term, 
science  and  philosophy. 
Geology. — The  principal  rocks  reviewed  and  com- 
pared.    The  arrangement  and  succession  of  the  rocks. 
Igneous  and  aqueous  rocks.     The  operation  of  geologic 
forces — frost,  heat,  rain,  snow,  the  wind,  glaciers,  elec- 
tricity, volcanoes,  earthquakes,  etc. — in  effecting  changes 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Logic. — Reasoning,  inductive  and  deductive.  The 
mental  processes  involved  in  each.  The  laws  of  reason- 
ing developed  and  applied  to  investigations,  to  indus- 
tries, and  to  all  the  affairs  of  life. 

LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

History  of  Art. — The  art  of  the  ancient  rations, 
Egypt,  India,  Assyria,  and  Greece,  as  shown  in  the 
form  and  decoration  of  their  architecture,  and  in  their 
sculpture.  Natural  art  the  outgrowth  of  natural  char- 
acter and  of  the  surrounding  condition.  Roman,  Goth- 
ic, Saracenic,  and  Oriental  art  as  exhibited  in  architect- 
ure. Egyptian,  Etruscan,  Greek,  Chinese,  French,  and 
English  art  as  shown  in  pottery.  Painting.  The  great 
schools  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Italian,  the  Flemish, 
the  Spanish,  and  Dutch  schools.  French  and  English 
painters.  Music,  its  evolutions  and  its  numerous  de- 
partments. Italian  and  German  music.  The  oratorio 
and  the  opera. 

Writing. — Exercises  in  geology  and  logic,  and  essavs 
upon  art. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  history  of  art. 


3G8  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Trigonometry. — The  principles  of  plane  trigonometry 
introduced,  exemplified,  and  applied  to  practical  work. 

Second,   or  Winter  Term, 
science  and  philosophy. 

Geology. — The  works  of  the  various  forms  of  corals  in 
building  rocks.  The  mutual  effect  of  geologic  changes  and 
of  organic  life  upon  each  other.  Paleontology,  or  the  tes- 
timony of  the  rocks  in  regard  to  ancient  life.  Geologic 
changes,  as  bearing  upon  the  history  and  condition  of  man. 

Astronomy. — Observations  of  the  position  of  the 
stars,  and  their  relations  to  each  other.  Facts  in  regard 
to  position  and  changes  derived  from  the  observation  of 
others.  The  constellations  and  the  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal stars.     Right  ascension,  declination,  and  parallax. 

Political  Economy. — The  evolutions  of  the  various 
industries.  The  gradual  changes  in  the  upward  progress 
of  civilization.  From  the  study  of  the  facts  of  the  his- 
tory of  civilization  general  laws  developed  in  regard  to 
the  direction  of  progress.  How  far  industries  depend 
upon  environment.  The  prosecution  of  the  different 
industries  resulting  in  division  of  labor  and  improve- 
ment of  products.  The  limits  of  division  of  labor  from 
the  standpoints  of  economy  and  education.  Trade  the 
necessary  result  of  differing  conditions  and  of  division 
of  labor.  Wealth,  intrinsic  and  exchangeable,  how 
produced. 

LANGUAGE  AND    LITERATURE. 

History  of  Philosophy. — The  myths  of  the  ancient 
nations.     The  gradual  change  of  myths  into  speculative 


GENERAL  COURSE  OF  STUDY.         3(59 

beliefs.  The  philosophic  systems  of  the  Greeks :  Soc- 
rates, Plato,  Aristotle.  The  ancient  schools  of  philoso- 
phy :  the  Epicurean,  the  stoical.  The  revival  of  philoso- 
phy in  modern  times.  The  French  philosophers:  I  Des- 
cartes, Comte,  Cousin,  Malebranche,  etc.  The  German 
philosophers :  Spinoza,  Kant,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Fichte, 
etc.  The  English  philosophers :  Bacon,  Locke,  Stewart, 
Hamilton,  Mill,  Spencer,  etc.  The  rise  of  modern  sci- 
ence, and  its  influence  on  philosophy. 

Writing. — Essays  upon  political  economy  and  phi- 
losophy.    Exercises  in  geology  and  astroDomy. 

Latin. — Optional,  in  place  of  history  of  philosophy. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Trigonometry.  — Spherical  trigonometry,  its  princi- 
ples and  apjriications. 


Third,  ok  Spring  Term, 
science  and  philosophy. 
Astronomy. — Inferences  drawn  from  the  facta  ob- 
served in  regard  to  the  solar  system.  The  geocentric 
and  the  heliocentric  theories.  The  sun:  its  position, 
its  size,  and  its  motions.  The  planets  :  their  size,  rela- 
tive positions,  and  motions.  The  telescope:  appear- 
ances of  the  several  planets,  and  their  explanation.  The 
rapidity  of  light.  The  distance  of  the  fixed  Btars. 
Comets:  their  peculiar  forms  and  eccentric  orbits. 
Nebulas:  their  position  and  appearance.  The  nebnlona 
hypothesis  of  the  growth  of  the  worlds.  The  results  of 
spectrum  analysis  in  regard  to  the  motion  of  the  E  :ed 
stars  and  to  the  composition  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies. 


370  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Political  Economy. — The  gradual  evolution  of  trade. 
The  means  by  which  it  is  carried  on,  and  the  conditions 
of  its  successful  operation.  The  moral  principles  in- 
volved in  its  prosecution.  Necessities  of  a  medium  of 
exchange.  Necessary  qualities  of  such  a  medium. 
Money,  its  issue  and  circulation.  The  evolution  of 
banking.  Banks  of  exchange,  of  deposit,  and  of  dis- 
count. Paper  money,  its  necessity  and  the  measure  of 
its  worth.  The  relations  of  money  to  trade.  Capital 
and  labor,  their  mutual  relations  and  apparent  antago- 
nisms. Employer  and  employe.  Enterprises  con- 
trolled by  the  political  power.  Stock  companies.  Com- 
binations of  capital.  Trades-unions.  Strikes,  their 
ethics  and  results.  Antagonisms  settled  only  by  spread 
of  intelligence  and  the  general  recognition  of  economic 
and  moral  principles.  Cooperation,  its  nature,  history, 
and  results. 

LANGUAGE   AND    LITERATURE. 

General  Literature. — A  brief  survey  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  ancient  nations,  the  Hebrews,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  the  Persians,  the  Hindoos,  and  the  Chinese. 
The  gradual  rise  and  progress  of  modern  literature. 
The  effect  of  scientific  research  and  of  physical  improve- 
ments upon  literature.  The  present  state  of  literature 
in  the  principal  countries  of  the  world. 

Writing. — Exercises  in  astronomy,  and  essays  upon 
topics  connected  with  political  economy  and  general 
literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Surveying. — The  application  of  geometric  and  trigo- 
nometric principles  to  surveying. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

COUNTRY  SCHOOLS,  AND   THEIR   ORGANIZATION. 

Comparative  Standing. — In  city  and  country  the 
objects  of  education  are  alike,  but  the  conditions  of  the 
two  are  so  dissimilar  that  the  schools  are  necessarily 
unlike  in  organization  and  general  methods.  The  ag- 
gregation of  pupils  in  the  city  allows  of  a  gradation 
and  division  of  labor  quite  impossible  in  the  country  ; 
and  the  concentrated  wealth  of  the  city  gives  superior 
advantages  in  the  way  of  school-houses  and  all  the  ap- 
pliances of  education.  Still  there  are  compensations  in 
the  country;  and  in  excellence  of  results  country  schools, 
intelligently  conducted,  approach  nearer  the  highest 
standard  of  city  schools  than  is  generally  supposed. 

The  low  condition  of  country  schools  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  is  owing  in  part  to  intrinsic  defects,  and 
in  part  to  accidental  causes.  The  former  can  be  much 
ameliorated  and  the  latter  removed  by  making  the 
most  of  all  favoring  conditions,  and  by  a  wise  adminis- 
tration that  fully  comprehends  their  needs. 

Advantages. — The  advantages  of  situation  poe  i 
by  country  schools  will  be  more  and   more  appreciated 
as  instruction    progressively  approximates  \<>    rational 
methods.     In  the  country  the  study  of  natural  history, 


372         PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

the  foundation  of  all  primary  instruction,  can  be  carried 
on  without  cost  for  material ;  and  as  the  children  are 
daily  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  Nature,  the 
study  may  be  made  doubly  interesting  and  profitable. 
The  growth  of  mind  is  a  slow  process,  requiring  periods 
of  alternate  activity  and  rest.  The  peqoetual  din  and 
motion  in  the  city  stimulates  mental  activity,  but  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  the  rest  which  the  quiet  of  the 
country  affords.  If  the  proper  means  are  taken  to 
awaken  the  mental  powers,  the  conditions  of  health- 
ful mental  growth  greatly  preponderate  in  the  country 
schools.  There  devolves  -upon  the  teacher,  however, 
the  duty  of  arousing  thought,  to  prevent  the  mental 
stagnation  which  comes  from  uncultivated  perceptions, 
and  the  narrowness  incident  to  limited  experiences. 

Another  advantage  in  country  life  favorable  to  schol- 
arship is  the  general  mingling  of  work  and  study.  Both 
boys  and  girls  have  something  to  do  as  well  as  some- 
thing to  learn ;  and  when  the  work  is  limited  to  the 
proper  amount,  and  not  pushed  to  the  point  of  exhaus- 
tion, it  becomes  a  source  of  additional  intellectual  vigor. 
Teachers  who  have  had  experience  in  both  city  and 
country  schools,  with  great  unanimity,  testify  that  the 
pupils  in  the  latter  take  greater  interest  and  make 
greater  progress  in  a  given  time.  This  is  doubtless 
owing  in  part  to  the  work,  which  gives  them  motive 
and  vigor,  and  in  part  to  the  shorter  terms  of  country 
schools. 

Dr.  Seguin,  the  eminent  physiologist  and  physician, 
advocates  out-door  study  as  the  most  conducive  to  bod- 
ily health  and  mental  vigor.  He  thinks  pupils  from  a 
very  early  age  should  be  brought  in  direct  contact  with 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  373 

Nature,  and  no  lesson  should  be  given  in-doors  that  can 
be  given  without.  To  accomplish  this  end  he  proposes 
to  make  the  public  parks  of  the  city  great  educational 
institutions,  where  Nature  may  be  studied  at  first  hand. 
"While  this  plan  may  not  be  practical  at  present,  it  indi- 
cates the  direction  of  the  improvements  which  are  de- 
manded for  education.  In  the  country  are  found  the 
conditions  which  this  improved  system  of  education 
calls  for  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  the  city,  and 
there  seems  no  good  reason  why  country  schools  may 
not  be  made  to  take  the  lead  in  reducing  these  ideas 
to  practice. 

Defects. —  The  greatest  intrinsic  disadvantage  of 
country  schools  is  the  limited  number  of  pupils,  and 
the  consequent  impossibility  of  a  proper  system  of  grad- 
ing. Pupils  of  all  ages  and  degrees  of  advancement 
meet  in  the  same  room,  each  grade  diminishing  the  op- 
portunities of  the  other:  primary  and  advanced  instruc- 
tion go  on  together,  mutually  interfering  with  each 
other;  and  so  wide  a  range  of  employment  is  given  to 
the  teacher  that  he  cannot  become  an  expert  in  any  de- 
partment, and  he  fails  to  do  justice  to  any  class.  While 
these  evils  are  incident  to  the  situation  of  country 
schools,  the  ill  effects  may  be  diminished  bj  wise  or- 
ganization and  administration. 

Boards  of  Control. — That  organization  has  proved 
the  most  successful  which  has  brought  several  schools, 
QB  those  of  a  township,  under  one  board  of  control. 
The  advantages  which  this  system  has  over  that  of  sin- 
gle districts  are  a  more  intelligent  management,  the 
employment  of  better  qualified  teacher-,  the  erection 
of   better  school-houses,  greater  care  in  the   preserva* 


374:         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

tion  of  school  property,  a  wiser  supervision,  and  a  more 
equable  distribution  of  taxes.  When  the  board  is  in- 
vested with  the  power  of  grading  and  establishing  cen- 
tral schools  for  the  higher  classes,  and  when  they  exer- 
cise this  power  judiciously,  the  greatest  inherent  defect 
of  the  country  school  system  is  largely  overcome,  and 
the  schools  in  efficiency  are  made  to  approximate  very 
closely  to  the  city  schools.  The  teacher  may  also  do 
much  to  diminish  the  evils  of  mixed  schools,  by  reduc- 
ing the  number  of  classes  to  the  minimum,  by  more 
frequent  general  exercises,  by  the  adoption  of  rational 
methods,  and  by  the  more  general  introduction  and 
practice  of  written  work.  The  other  evils  connected 
with  country  schools  are  wholly  remediable  by  the 
State,  the  district,  and  the  teacher. 

School-houses. — In  many  parts  of  the  country  the 
condition  of  the  schoolhouses  and  the  premises  about 
them  is  a  disgrace  to  the  community.  A  building 
made  ugly  to  the  extreme  of  parsimony  in  its  construc- 
tion, affording  no  adequate  protection  from  the  ele- 
ments, destitute  of  ordinary  comforts  within,  and  want- 
ing in  the  conveniences  demanded  by  decency  with- 
out, is  the  place  where  all  the  children  of  the  district 
are  to  pass  their  school-days,  and  receive  the  most  du- 
rable impressions  of  their  lives.  The  only  satisfaction 
to  be  gained  from  a  consideration  of  this  matter  is,  in 
the  fact,  that  improvements  are  being  made,  and  that 
these  conditions,  so  disreputable  to  the  people  who  are 
responsible  for  them,  are  undergoing  a  change  for  the 
better. 

The  school-house  should  be  conveniently  and  pleas- 
antly located,  and  well  built.     It  should  afford  ample 


COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  375 

protection  from  the  weather,  and  it  should  be  arranged 
for  the  comfort  of  the  pupils.  Attention  should  he 
specially  given  to  the  admission  of  light,  and  to  the 
heating  and  ventilation,  so  that  a  uniform  temperature 
may  be  preserved,  and  an  ample  supply  of  pure  air 
secured.  At  the  present  time  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
excuse  for  poisoning  pupils  with  foul  air.  In  other 
respects  the  schools  should  be  supplied  with  those  con- 
veniences which  are  considered  indispensable  to  respec- 
table households. 

Apparatus  and  Boohs.  —  Another  defect  in  the 
country  schools  generally  is  the  want  of  the  apparatus 
and  books  necessary  for  successful  instruction.  No 
man  would  think  of  employing  a  farm-laborer  without 
supplying  him  with  the  tools  for  farm -work  ;  and  it  is 
no  less  absurd  to  expect  a  teacher  to  do  the  best  work 
without  apparatus  than  to  expect  a  laborer  to  make  the 
best  crop  without  a  plough  and  other  farm-implements. 
The  neglect  in  this  direction  is  in  part  owing  to  a  mis- 
taken notion  in  regard  to  the  importance  of  apparatus, 
and  in  part  to  the  desire  to  reduce  the  expenses  to  the 
lowest  possible  amount.  Economy,  however,  it  is  • 
to  show,  is  on  the  side  of  wise  and  proper  expenditure, 
as  by  it  the  efficiency  of  the  schools  is  s<>  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Costly  apparatus  is  not  needed  in  the  average  coun- 
try schools.  Most  of  the  things  needed  to  illustrate 
instruction  can  be  collected  by  teachers  and  pupils  at 
very  little  expense.  The  things  which  are  indispensa- 
ble to  the  best  results  are  a  globe,  a  Bet  of  outline  maps, 
local  maps  of  the  town  and  county,  a  large  amount  of 
excellent  blackboard,  and   a   cabinet   containing  sped- 


376         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

mens  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  elements  of  the  different 
departments  of  natural  history,  and  the  different  manu- 
factures. The  books  indispensable  are  an  unabridged 
dictionary,  a  comprehensive  history  of  the  United  States, 
a  biographical  dictionary,  and  some  brief  encyclopaedia 
of  science.  An  encyclopaedia  of  general  knowledge, 
freely  used  by  pupils,  would  so  multiply  the  general  re 
suits  of  education  as  to  pay  for  itself  each  year.  After 
the  books  enumerated  have  been  provided,  the  expendi- 
ture of  a  small  sum  each  year  will  soon  procure  a  valu- 
able library  of  reference  which  will  be  a  source  of  en- 
lightenment not  only  to  the  school,  but  to  the  whole 
neighborhood.  In  the  selection  of  books  the  needs  of 
the  school  should  be  considered  and  all  trash  excluded. 

Short  Terms. — Another  of  the  disabilities  under 
which  the  majority  of  the  country  schools  labor  is  the 
short  terms  of  instruction.  While  the  city  schools  usu- 
ally continue  in  session  ten  months  each  year,  the  coun- 
try schools  average  but  little  more  than  one-half  of  that 
time.  The  opportunity  for  education  is  thus  less  than 
it  should  be,  and  intelligence  is  correspondingly  less. 
By  irregularity  of  attendance  also  there  is  a  failure  to 
make  the  best  of  the  opportunities  offered,  and  the 
amount  of  possible  good  to  be  derived  from  the  schools 
is  still  further  diminished. 

The  sessions  that  would  seem  most  suitable  to  the 
conditions  of  the  country  are  a  term  of  eight  weeks  be- 
ginning about  the  1st  of  September,  a  session  of  twenty 
weeks  beginning  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  November, 
and  a  session  of  eight  weeks  beginning  about  the  1st  of 
May.  This  would  give  thirty-six  weeks  of  school,  which 
could  be  extended  to  forty  weeks  by  making  the  inter- 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  377 

mediate  vacations  less.  By  this  arrangement  the  long 
continuous  term  is  in  winter  when  there  is  the  least  de- 
mand for  labor,  and  the  long  vacation  is  in  midsummer, 
so  as  to  avoid  exposure  of  children  to  the  great  heat  and 
to  give  teachers  time  for  recreation  in  the  form  of  rest 
and  study.  Since  the  experiment  of  Agassiz,  at  Peni- 
kese,  summer  schools  for  teachers  are  springing  up  all 
over  the  country,  and  the  terms  of  the  country  schools 
should  be  so  arranged  that  country  as  well  as  city  teach- 
ers may  be  able  to  attend  them. 

Change  of  Teachers. — In  most  country  districts  the 
older  pupils  attend  school  only  in  winter,  and  the  sum- 
mer term  is  made  up  mostly  of  the  younger  oiks,  ((in- 
stituting in  reality  a  primary  department.  This  condi- 
tion of  affairs  has  given  rise  to  the  custom  of  changing 
teachers  each  term,  employing  a  higher-priced  teacher  in 
winter  than  in  summer.  This  custom  works  injury  to 
the  schools  in  numerous  ways.  No  two  teachers  have 
exactly  the  same  methods  of  instruction,  and  it  always 
takes  time  for  pupils  to  get  accustomed  to  the  new  meth- 
ods, and  hence  there  is  a  waste  of  time  at  the  advent  of 
every  new  teacher.  At  the  close  of  the  short  term  the 
teacher  has  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  pupils  and  of  the  district,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  perform  the  best  service;  bul  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  next  term  another  comes  in,  and  the  pro 
of  making  the  acquaintance  of  the  pupils  is  repeated. 
Teachers  employed  for  only  a  single  term  at  one  place 
take  comparatively  little  interest  in  their  work,  ami  have 
but  little  incentive  to  improvement.  The  people,  accus- 
tomed to  migratory  teachers,  show  them  Bcanl  courtesy 
or  ignore  them  altogether,  and  the  school  ifl  altogether 


378  FRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   TEACHING. 

lacking  in  that  mental  vigor  and  high  moral  tone  which 
■would  result  from  the  interest  and  cooperation  of  teach- 
er, pupil,  and  parent. 

The  true  policy  in  regard  to  the  employment  of 
teachers  would  seem  to  be  the  payment  of  the  highest 
wages  that  the  district  can  afford,  the  standard  of  abili- 
ty to  pay  being  an  enlightened  appreciation  of  the  value 
of  education ;  the  employment  of  the  best  teacher  which 
the  money  will  secure ;  and  the  retention  of  the  teacher 
for  the  longest  possible  time.  All  proper  encourage- 
ment and  facilities  should  be  given  the  teacher  for  at- 
tending Institutes  and  special  summer  schools,  and  a 
lively  interest  should  be  shown  by  the  parents  in  the 
teacher's  work.  A  new  idea  or  a  new  method  intro- 
duced should  be  judged  by  its  results,  and  not  denounced 
in  the  outset.  By  careful  attention  to  the  selection  and 
moral  support  of  the  teacher,  the  value  of  the  schools 
may  be  more  than  doubled. 

Qualification  of  Teachers. — The  one  thing  indis- 
pensable to  the  success  of  a  school  is  a  good  teacher.  In 
comparison,  the  functions  of  all  other  officers  are  of  little 
moment ;  and  could  we  be  sure  of  a  supply  of  competent 
teachers,  superintendents  and  examiners  would  at  once 
become  superfluous,  and  directors  would  be  useful  only 
in  furnishing  necessary  supplies  for  the  schools.  Prac- 
tically, however,  it  is  found  that  all  teachers  are  not 
properly  qualified,  and  that  the  utmost  vigilance  must 
be  exercised  continually  to  keep  aspiring  incompetence 
out  of  the  schools.  All  the  machinery  of  superintend- 
ence and  of  examinations  is  devised  to  this  end ;  but 
when  the  competent  teacher  is  once  secured,  the  work 


COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  379 

of  the  school  goes  on  without  the  aid  or  interference 
of  any  other  person. 

Scientific  Knowledge. — The  first  and  Lowest  qualifi- 
cation demanded  of  teachers  is  that  they  shall  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  branches  which  they  are  expected  to 
teach.  It  is  not  enough  to  be  able  to  read,  and  so  as- 
certain from  the  text-book  whether  the  pupils  repeat  the 
text  accurately,  but  the  knowledge  should  be  so  thor- 
ough that  text-books  would  never  lie  a  necessity  in  reci- 
tation. The  knowledge  demanded  for  the  successful  <•<  in- 
duct of  even  a  primary  Bchool  is  varied  and  extensive. 
Its  scope  is  shown  in  the  appended  course  of  study. 

Officers  who  have  charge  of  the  examination  <>f 
teachers  have  curious  experiences  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duties.  Persons  are  continually  presenting  them- 
selves as  candidates  for  certificates,  who  cannot  spell; 
who  make  fearful  blunders  in  reading  the  easiest  narra- 
tive; who  are  not  able  to  solve  the  simplest  problems 
of  arithmetic  outside  of  the  accustomed  routine,  and 
who  continually  blunder  in  expression  both  orally  and 
in  writing.  Such  persons  are  usually  very  persistent  in 
their  demands,  and  not  unfrequently  the  refusal  of  a 
certificate  is  followed  by  the  denunciation  of  the  office. 
The  literary  qualifications  now  demanded  for  a  first- 
grade  certificate  are  the  least  that  any  teacher  of  any 
grade  of  school  should  possess. 

General  Culture. — Besides  the  technical  knowledge 
of  the  branches  to  be  taught,  teachers  should  have  a 
wide  and  varied  culture  in  matters  of  general  human 
interest.  It  has  been  well  stated  that  no  person  can  he 
in  full  possession  of  his  own  powers  until  he  is  ac- 
quainted with  the  history  of  the  past ;  and  certainly  it  is 


380  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHIXCx. 

scarcely  possible  to  exaggerate  tlie  importance  of  his- 
torical knowledge  in  promoting  the  interest  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  school.  This  knowledge  in  its  widest 
sense  includes  every  department  of  literature  ;  and  there 
is  no  form  of  literary  attainment  that  may  not  be  turned 
to  advantage  in  school  processes. 

This  general  culture  should  include  also  a  knowledge 
of  the  present  state  of  affairs  in  the  leading  countries  of 
the  world.  Our  morning  newspapers  bring  us  intelli- 
gence fresh  from  every  known  part  of  the  earth,  but  a 
wide  knowledge  of  present  history  is  necessary  to  profit 
by  this  intelligence  ourselves  and  to  turn  it  to  good  ac- 
count in  teaching.  Teachers  in  possession  of  this  knowl- 
edge can  make  profitable  use  of  newspapers,  magazines, 
and  everything  that  relates  to  current  events,  and  the 
value  of  the  school  will  be  vastly  increased  by  such 
processes. 

The  Mental  Powers. — A  knowledge  of  the  mental 
powers,  their  modes  of  activity,  their  limitations,  and 
the  order  of  their  development,  is  indispensable  to  the 
highest  success  in  teaching.  Without  this  knowledge 
good  instruction  may  be  given,  but  the  processes  are 
necessarily  empirical  and  the  work  that  of  mere  routine. 
With  it,  teachers  have  a  key  to  most  of  the  educational 
problems  that  are  continually  coming  up  for  solution  ; 
they  have  a  principle  to  guide  them  in  new  experiences ; 
they  can  adapt  their  work  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils, 
and  adjust  courses  of  study  to  produce  the  best  results ; 
they  are  sufficient  for  any  emergency  that  may  arise  in 
instruction,  and  they  are  not  driven  to  make  doubtful 
experiments  which  may  increase  the  evils  rather  than 
diminish  them. 


COUNTRY   SCHOOL?.  ;>• 

Professional  Knowledge. — The  teacher,  before  com- 
mencing his  work,  should  also  have  a  very  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  economies  of  instruction,  such  as  or- 
ganization, classification,  tactics,  and  discipline.  Or- 
ganization includes  the  general  scope  of  the  instruction, 
the  course  of  study,  and  the  proper  distribution  of  the 
studies  as  far  as  time  is  concerned;  classification  has 
reference  to  the  division  of  the  school  in  the  bases  of 
attainment  for  the  purpose  of  recitation  ;  tactics  consid- 
ers the  movements  of  pupils,  so  that  there  shall  be  no 
interference,  and  no  time  wasted  ;  and  discipline  has  to 
do  with  the  means  to  secure  order  and  promote  the  best 
interests  of  the  school.  Experienced  teachers  have 
written  upon  all  these  topics,  treating  them  from  both 
the  theoretical  and  practical  points  of  view  ;  and  there 
are  now  so  many  valuable  treatises  readily  accessible 
that  no  teacher  can  have  an  adequate  excuse  for  neglect- 
ing them. 

The  means  of  professional  culture  arc  within  the 
reach  of  every  teacher.  The  cost  of  instruction  at  Nor 
mal  Schools  is  usually  less  than  at  other  schools  where 
the  same  branches  are  taught,  and  these  schools  are  now- 
provided  in  nearly  all  the  State.-.  In  -Mine  of  tin- Stat.-, 
in  addition  to  the  Normal  Schools,  there  are  teachers' 
classes  in  academics  and  high  schools,  where  tuition  is 
free.  Another  agency  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  is 
the  Teachers'  Institute,  now*  held  annually  in  each  coun- 
ty in  those  States  where  much  attention  is  given  to 
school  matters.  The  lowest  demand  thai  should  be 
made  upon  teachers  in  regard  to  these  agencies  for  pro- 
fessional  culture  is  that  they  should  attend  the  pro- 
fessional course  of  a  normal  school  or  academy  before 


382         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

commencing  their  work,  and  that  they  should  be  con- 
stant in  their  attendance  upon  Institutes  after  entering 
upon  their  duties,  and  should  take  an  active  part  in  the 
exercises. 

Self- Improvement. — It  is  incumbent  upon  all  teach- 
ers to  continually  study  and  improve  themselves.  This 
is  especially  true  in  regard  to  those  who,  for  any  cause, 
have  been  deprived  of  the  opportunity  for  a  thorough 
professional  preparation.  The  new  subjects  investi- 
gated should  be  in  the  direction  of  natural  history, 
mental  philosophy,  and  general  history  and  literature, 
as  these  are  most  neglected.  Several  of  these  subjects 
may  be  taken  up  in  direct  connection  with  school-work, 
and  the  improvement  of  the  teacher  made  incidental  to 
his  class-duties.  For  example,  a  teacher  has  never 
studied  botany,  and  he  wishes  to  give  some  elementary 
instruction  to  a  class  of  children  upon  plants.  He  would 
do  well  to  procure  some  little  work  like  Miss  You- 
mans's  "  First  Book  in  Botany,"  or  Gray's  "  How  Plants 
Grow,"  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  method  of  study. 
Then  let  him  commence  with  the  leaves,  observing 
their  form,  edges,  and  structure,  and  so  go  on,  by  almost 
imperceptible  steps,  from  an  observation  of  the  parts  to 
a  comprehension  of  the  whole.  The  pupils  would  be 
greatly  interested  and  improved  by  the  process,  but  the 
teacher  would  receive  the  greatest  benefit,  and,  by  con- 
tinuing the  process,  he  has  the  power  to  make  up,  in  a 
great  measure,  for  previous  deficiencies. 

The  summer  schools  for  professional  instruction 
afford  teachers  an  admirable  opportunity  for  studies  in 
the  direction  pointed  out,  and  it  becomes  a  question  of 
grave  moment  whether  a  teacher  who  neglects  these 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  333 

opportunities,  or  who  has  not  sufficient  energy  to  over- 
come the  ordinary  difficulties  in  the  way  of  attending 
these  schools,  has  the  desire  for  improvement,  the  energy, 
and  the  will,  which  are  necessary  to  successful  teaching. 

Details  of  Work. — The  course  of  study  prepared  for 
country  schools  is  founded  upon  the  same  general  prin- 
ciple as  that  for  graded  schools,  given  at  length  in  the 
chapter  upon  "  Course  of  Study."  It  was  necessary, 
however,  to  condense  the  longer  course  in  regard  to  time, 
and  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the 
needs  and  conditions  of  the  country  schools.  The  prob- 
lem to  solve  was  to  prepare  a  course  that  shall  broaden 
the  present  instruction,  introduce  more  rational  methods, 
provide  for  more  practical  work,  and  stimulate  teachers 
to  higher  endeavor,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  set  the 
standard  so  high  as  to  be  unattainable  by  a  majority  of 
teachers  now  employed,  and  so  to  act  as  a  discourage- 
ment rather  than  an  incentive  to  effort.  The  changes 
in  the  present  practices  which  this  course  of  study  pro- 
poses are  entirely  practical,  as  has  been  proved  by  actual 
trial  in  many  schools,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
the  better  results  which  will  follow  from  the  adoption 
of  this  improved  course  may  not  be  realized  in  all  parts 
of  the  country. 

The  Alphabet. —  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  read  by 
the  word  or  the  sentence  methods.  The  unit  of  atten- 
tion in  the  former  is  the  word,  in  the  latter  the  sentence. 
The  former  is  better  known  and  more  extensively  prac- 
tised; but  the  latter,  which  is  comparatively  new,  is 
doubtless  more  philosophical,  and  will  lead  t<»  better 
results  when  adopted.  The  details  of  these  methods 
must  be  obtained  from  manuals  of  instruction  or  from 


384         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 

Hying  teachers.  By  either  of  them  the  letters  are 
learned  incidentally,  while  the  pupil  is  intent  on  the 
idea  or  thought  represented,  and  the  least  possible 
amount  of  time  is  directly  spent  for  this  purpose. 

Reading. — Sentences  should  always  be  read  as  a 
unit,  and  the  pupil  should  not  be  permitted  to  pronounce 
each  word  as  though  disconnected  from  the  others.  In 
all  primary  reading,  pupils  should  fully  understand  the 
thought  before  trying  to  express  it.  They  should  never 
be  allowed  to  read  what  they  cannot  understand,  and 
they  should  always  express  the  thought  from  the  book, 
as  they  would  the  same  thought  in  conversation.  By 
observing  these  simple  directions,  the  conventional 
school-drawl  may  be  broken  up,  root  and  branch,  and 
an  onerous  mechanical  exercise  may  be  changed  into  an 
interesting  and  intelligent  one. 

Spelling. — An  almost  complete  revolution  is  recom- 
mended in  teaching  the  art  of  spelling.  As  soon  as  the 
pupil  learns  a  single  word  or  sentence,  let  him  be  taught 
to  copy  it  on  his  slate.  The  first  copying  should  be 
with  the  printed  characters,  to  more  quickly  familiar- 
ize him  with  the  form  of  the  letters,  but  these  should 
gradually  give  place  to  the  script  letter,  so  that  by  the 
end  of  the  first  year  script  letters  are  used  exclusively. 
This  copying  of  lessons  from  the  chart  and  book  should 
be  continued  as  a  daily  exercise  for  at  least  three  years, 
although  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  copy  all  the  lessons. 
Before  the  close  of  the  first  term,  the  pupil  should  also 
commence  writing  descriptions  of  objects,  beginning  by 
telling  one  thing,  and  increasing  the  amount  until  full 
descriptions  are  given.  In  this  way  spelling  and  pen- 
manship are  both  taught  incidentally  while  other  lessons 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  3S5 

are  studied,  and  the  time  for  teaching  them  directly  is 
saved.  By  this  method  the  pupil  never  guesses  at  the 
spelling  of  a  word ;  never  spells  orally  except  with  the 
written  or  printed  characters  before  him  ;  never  hears 
or  sees  a  misspelled  word  ;  and  he  spells  every  word  he 
knows  correctly.  The  words  that  he  does  not  know,  he 
does  not  try  to  spell  until  he  has  looked  them  out,  and 
this  leads  to  good  spelling  all  the  time. 

Object-Lessons. — The  object-lessons  are  systematized, 
and  from  the  very  first  are  made  to  include  the  elements 
of  the  sciences.  They  are  made  so  progressive  thai  any 
teacher  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  give  them,  and 
gradually  become  acquainted  with  the  science  of  which 
they  form  a  part  in  the  way  already  pointed  out.  More 
or  less  time  may  be  given  to  this  part  of  the  instruction, 
depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  school  and  the  skill 
of  the  teachers.  It  may  be  made  to  constitute  the  best 
half  of  teaching,  awakening  mental  activity  and  storing 
the  mind  with  the  most  useful  knowledge.  These  ob- 
ject-lessons may  frequently  be  made  general  for  the 
whole  school,  thus  effecting  another  s;i\  Ing  in  time. 

Rural  Affairs. — It  is  a  fact  much  to  be  deplored 
that  in  country  schools  there  are  no  exercises  which  take 
into  consideration  country  life.  The  occupation  which 
absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  people,  and 
all  its  varied  and  contingent  interests,  are  BCarcely  recog- 
nized in  school-work.  Children  fresh  from  the  farm, 
with  an  extensive  but  unsystematized  knowledge  of  the 
farm  processes,  and  an  active  interest  in  them,  are  set  to 
tasks  which  have  no  relations  to  these  activities,  and 
which  usually  are  abstract  and  uninteresting.  A  rational 
system  of  instruction  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
IT 


386  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

first  step  in  the  school-work  shall  be  to  make  the  child 
conscious  of  what  he  already  knows,  to  arrange  the 
knowledge  in  proper  order,  and  to  stimulate  observation 
and  inquiry  in  the  very  direction  in  which  the  mind 
has  already  been  developed. 

These  country  children  know  a  great  deal  about 
plants,  their  names,  their  forms,  their  uses,  and  their 
manner  of  growth.  A  little  stimulus  only  is  necessary 
to  excite  a  great  interest  in  the  general  subject  of  plant- 
life,  leading  on  by  short  steps  to  systematic  botany  and 
vegetable  physiology.  They  know  also  a  great  deal 
about  domestic  animals,  their  characteristics,  their  habits, 
and  their  products.  Starting  from  this  knowledge  it  is 
easy  to  lead  them  to  make  further  investigations  in  the 
same  direction,  cultivating  their  perceptive  powers  in 
the  most  efficient  manner,  and  storing  their  minds  with 
knowledge  that  reaches  out  toward  the  material  world 
on  the  one  side,  and  toward  the  phenomena  of  life  upon 
the  other,  and  indispensable  as  a  basis  to  a  wide  and 
general  culture.  The  knowledge  which  the  child  has 
in  regard  to  bees  and  other  insects ;  to  the  succession  of 
f arm  processes  from  seed-time  to  harvest ;  to  the  manip- 
ulations necessary  to  produce  a  crop  and  prepare  it  for 
the  market  ;  and  to  the  processes  and  products  of 
household  labor  and  economy — all  can  be  turned  to 
good  account  in  the  process  of  education,  doubling 
the  interest  in  study  and  increasing  the  products  mani- 
fold. 

In  following  this  method,  the  teacher  is  but  obeying 
one  of  the  most  fundamental  of  all  the  laws  of  mental 
development,  proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, and  making  the  previous  experience  of  the  child 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  ;>; 

tlie  basis  for  its  future  growth.  Besides  the  advanl 
to  the  cliild  itself,  this  method  aids  education  in  other 
ways.  It  takes  away  from  instruction  the  reproach  of 
being  impractical,  it  excites  an  interest  in  all  school 
affairs  on  the  part  of  parents,  and  it  leads  to  continually 
more  intelligent  action  in  home  and  farm  affairs,  We 
may  hope  it  will  also  have  the  effect  of  leading  to  a 
higher  appreciation  of  country  life  and  of  arresting  the 
present  tendency  of  migration  toward  the  cities,  and  of 
the  abandonment  of  the  farms  for  trade  or  for  the  pro- 
fessions. 


SPECIAL   COURSE   OF  STUDY. 

Ferst  Grade, 
language. 

Reading. — "Words  and  sentences  learned  from  the 
blackboard  and  charts.  Letters  learned  incidentally — 
first  in  promiscuous  order — second  \\\.  the  order  of  the 
alphabet.     First  reader  completed. 

Writing. — "Words  of  the  lesson  printed  upon  the 
slate  the  first  term— written  afterward.  Script  letters 
gradually  introduced  so  as  to  be  exclusively  used  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  Description  of  objects  written  during 
the  last  term. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Counting  to  100.  Combina- 
tions by  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  divi- 
sion to  1<>  with  objects.     Numbers  written  to  LOO. 


388         PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACIIING. 
OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Miscellaneous. — One  familiar  object  described  daily : 
its  form — size — color — uses — parts — uses  of  parts.  De- 
scription in  connected  sentences  both  oral  and  in  writ- 
ing. 

Animals. — Parts  of  the  human  body — the  dog — the 
cat — the  cow — the  horse — parts  compared  and  differ- 
ences noted — terms  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  devel- 
oped. The  rabbit — the  rat — term  rodent  applied.  Other 
known  animals  examined  and  compared. 

Plants. — Leaves,  their  form  and  structure,  and  the 
different  parts. 

Place. — Position  of  objects  in  the  room — position 
of  parts  of  the  room — direction  developed — points  of 
direction — map  of  room  made  upon  the  board  and 
slates. 

Size. — Inch,  foot,  yard,  and  rod  measures  introduced 
and  used. 

Second  Grade, 
language. 
Beading. — Second  reader  commenced  and  complet- 
ed.   Special  attention  given  to  the  cultivation  of  pleasant 
tones,  and  to  drill  in  the  vowel  elements. 

Writing. — Lessons  copied  from  the  book,  and  de- 
scription of  objects  written  daily.  Attention  given  to 
the  form,  size,  and  connection  of  the  letters. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Lessons  in  Number. — Addition,  subtraction,  and 
multiplication  tables  to  10  constructed  by  pupils.  Prac- 
tice in  these  rules. 


COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  380 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Studies  of  animals  continued  by  means 
of  pictures  :  the  lion — the  tiger — the  elephant — the  ze- 
bra— the  deer — the  bear — the  monkey.  Familiar  birds 
examined  and  described  :  the  hen — the  turkey — the 
goose — the  duck — the  robin — parts  compared,  and  com- 
pared with  other  animals.  Frogs  and  lizards  examined 
and  compared  with  the  other  animals  previously 
studied. 

Plants. — The  stem — branches — roots  and  bark  ex- 
amined and  described.  Garden  vegetables  :  names — u.-es 
— parts  of  each  used  for  food. 

Place. — The  school-room  measured.  Ideas  of  a 
scale  developed — map  of  the  school-room  drawn  to  a 
scale.  The  school-yard  and  surroundings  studied  in 
regard  to  direction  —  measurements  made  and  map 
drawn. 

Size. — Measures  of  capacity,  gill,  pint,  quart,  gallon, 
peck,  and  bushel  introduced  and  used. 

Miscellaneous  objects  examined  in  reference  to  qual- 
ities as  given  in  the  general  course. 

Third   Gr.vdi:. 
language. 
Heading. — Third  reader  commenced.     Special  drill 
in  the  consonant  elements.     Exercises  varied  by  reading 
from  children's  books  and  magazines. 

Writing. — Topics  discussed  in  class  and  afterward 
written.  One  written  exercise  daily.  All  new  words 
written  when  introduced.  Impromptu  written  exer 
cises. 


390  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING. 

ARITHMETIC. 

J¥umhe?*s. — Division-table  to  10  constructed.  Prac- 
tice in  multiplication  and  divison. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Birds  classified.  Reptiles  and  fishes  ex- 
amined, and  parts  compared  with  other  animals.  The 
term  vertebrate  developed  and  applied. 

Plants. — Seeds  of  plants,  kinds  and  uses.  The  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables  used  for  food. 
Other  common  plants  examined  and  described.  Divi- 
sion into  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs. 

Place.  —  Route  of  each  pupil  from  home  to 
school  described  and  map  drawn.  Natural  divis- 
ion of  land  and  water  objectively  described.  The 
school  district  and  township  described  and  maps 
drawn. 

Size. — Measures  of  capacity  reviewed.  Square  and 
cubic  measures  introduced  and  used. 


Fourth   Grade, 
language. 

Reading. — Third  reader  completed.  Miscellaneous 
reading  from  books,  newspapers,  and  magazines.  Par- 
ticular attention  constantly  given  to  pleasant  tones,  dis- 
tinctness of  articulation,  and  punctuation. 

Writing. — One  written  exercise  each  day — descrip- 
tion of  objects  and  events — reproductions  of  object-les- 
sons— impromptu  work.  Special  attention  given  to  use 
of  capitals  and  of  the  period.  All  new  words  written 
when  introduced. 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  391 

ARITHMETIC. 

Fundamental  rales  reviewed.  Special  practice  in 
division.  Prime  numbers.  Greatest  common  divisor 
and  least  common  multiple. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Insects,  their  form  and  habits — the  term 
articulate  developed  and  used,  dams,  oysters,  and 
snails — the  term  mollusk  introduced.  A  star-lish  ex- 
amined. The  term  radiate  developed.  Division  of 
animals  into  vertebrates,  articulates,  molh^ks  and  ra- 
diates. 

Plants. — How  plants  grow — exogens  and  endogens. 
Evergreen  and  deciduous.  Uses  of  the  different  parts 
— flow  of  sap. 

Gi  ogra/phy. — The  state  and  changes  of  the  weather. 
The  country:   surface — general   products — occupati 
of  the  people — civil  officers — map. 

Weiy/it. — Objective  introduction  of  avoirdupois, 
troy,  and  apothecaries'  weight.  The  different  denomi- 
nations made  the  basis  of  exercises  in  number. 


Finn    Gbade. 
LABQTJAl 

Heading. — Fourth  reader  commenced.    Historical 

and  biographical  sketches  read  from  books  and  maga- 
zines, ('are  must  be  taken  that  the  selections  are  such 
as  will  interest  the  pupils. 

Writing. — One  exercise  derived  from  the  object- 
lessons  each  day.  Written  descriptions  of  Buch  indus- 
trial occupations  as  the  pupils  are  besl  acquainted  with. 


392         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

Special  attention  to  punctuation.     Copy-books  Nos.  I. 
and  II. 

ARITHMETIC. 

General  review.  Fractions  :  reductions — addition — 
subtraction — multiplication — division. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The  State :  boundaries — surface — climate — produc- 
tions. The  United  States.  The  earth  as  a  whole : 
grand  division — distribution  of  land  and  water — defi- 
nitions. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Food  of  animals  :  kinds  of  foods — how 
obtained.  Digestion  and  the  digestive  apparatus.  Cir- 
culation of  the  blood. 

Plants. — Vegetable  articles  used  for  food.  Where 
and  how  obtained.  Trees :  the  names  and  character- 
istics of  all  the  common  trees.  Plant-lessons  made  the 
basis  for  written  exercises. 


Sixth   Grade, 
language. 

Heading. — Fourth  reader  completed.  Geographi- 
cal and  historical  sketches  read  from  books  and  maga- 
zines— news  items — newspaper  articles.  Reading-mat- 
ter may  be  selected  having  reference  to  some  of  the 
studies  pursued. 

Writing. — One  written  exercise  daily,  founded  upon 
some  of  the  studies  pursued,  or  upon  the  industrial 
occupations.     Copy-books  Nos.  III.  and  IY. 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  ;;-j;j 

ARITHMETIC. 

Fractions  completed  and  reviewed.  Decimals  and 
Federal  money  completed. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical  and  civil  description  of  North  and  South 
America.     Maps  drawn  of  each. 

1'IIYSIOI.OGT. 

Breathing:  pure  air — the  respiratory  organs.  Ani- 
mal heat:  how  generated — how  preserved — artificial 
protection  against  heat  and  cold — clothing — houses — 
methods  of  heating  houses. 

BOTANY. 

Plants  considered  as  wild  and  cultivated — the  terms 
indigenous  and  exotic  developed.  Flowering  and  flow- 
erless  plants. 

Seventh    Grade, 
language. 
Heading. — Fifth    reader.       Miscellaneous    reading 
leading  into  the   different   departments  of   literature. 

Reading  in  connection  with  studies  pursued. 

Writing. — One  written  exercise  daily — occupations 
of  men — subjects  connected  with  the  studies  pursued 
— observations  of  animals — relating  incidents  repro- 
duction of  stories  told  or  lessons  previously  studied. 
Copy-books  Nos.  V.  and  VI. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Denominate  numbers  and  percentage. 


394         PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical  and  civil  descriptions  of  Europe  and 
Asia.     Map  drawn  of  each. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  bones — muscles — special  structure  of  the  hand 
and  foot.  Review  of  digestion  and  circulation.  The 
skin — the  nervous  system — nerves  of  special  sense. 


Eighth   Grade, 
language. 

Heading. — Miscellaneous  reading,  leading  to  the 
study  of  literature.  Beautiful  specimens  of  prose  and 
poetry  learned  and  recited.  Reading  in  connection 
with  the  studies  pursued. 

Writing. — One  written  exercise  daily.  Sketches  of 
natural  history — biography.  There  need  be  no  set  les- 
sons in  penmanship  in  this  grade  or  above.  The  com- 
position exercises  afford  sufficient  practice  in  writing. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Percentage  completed  in  its  application  to  interest 
and  to  various  forms  of  business.  Proportion,  its  prin- 
ciples and  ajmlications. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Objective  presentation  of  forces  of  various  kinds 
and  their  modes  of  action.  Heat  and  its  effect  upon 
bodies. 


COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.  395 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical  and  civil.     Geography  of  Africa  and  Oce- 
anica.     Special  study  of  United  States. 


Ninth   Grade. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Miscellaneous  reading  leading  into  litera- 
ture. Classifications  of  known  authors  according  to  sub- 
ject. 

Writing. — One  written  exercise  daily.  Subjects 
connected  with  natural  history  or  literature. 

Grammar. — Analysis  of  language  from  the  basis  of 
thought.  Elements  of  the  sentence.  Parts  of  speech. 
Syntax. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Mensuration.  Miscellaneous  examples.  General 
arithmetic  reviewed.     Mental  arithmetic. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical  geography.  Forces  at  work  changing  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  Reliefs  and  drainage.  The  ocean 
and  the  atmosphere.  Distribution  of  plant-,  animal.-, 
and  man. 

UNITED   STATES    HISTORY. 

Aboriginal  America.  Discoveries.  Settlements. 
"Wars.  The  Revolution.  The  Constitution.  The  ad- 
ministration. History  of  politics,  inventions,  arts.  Ed- 
ucation and  literature. 

THE    END. 


78  n  6 


UCLA-Young   Research   Library 

LB1025     J66 


L   009   545   469   0 


n  1 1  iii  a  Hi  ///////// 

M    001224  998    3 


UNIVERSli  ^ 

,^    LLBR£. 


